Marine Life Is Fleeing the Equator to Cooler Waters – This Could Trigger a Mass Extinction Event
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Oceans
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By Anthony Richardson, Chhaya Chaudhary, David Schoeman, and Mark John Costello
The tropical water at the equator is renowned for having the richest diversity of marine life on Earth, with vibrant coral reefs and large aggregations of tunas, sea turtles, manta rays and whale sharks. The number of marine species naturally tapers off as you head towards the poles.
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Ecologists have assumed this global pattern has remained stable over recent centuries — until now. <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/15/e2015094118" target="_blank">Our recent study</a> found the ocean around the equator has already become too hot for many species to survive, and that global warming is responsible.
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In other words, the global pattern is rapidly changing. And as species flee to cooler water towards the poles, it's likely to have profound implications for marine ecosystems and human livelihoods. When the same thing happened 252 million years ago, 90% of all marine species died.
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The Bell Curve is Warping Dangerously
<img class="rm-lazyloadable-image rm-shortcode" lazy-loadable="true" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNjAzODUwNi9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY3NzE1OTU4N30.qQL3P1IvA7Cwj_UbsrAL6MVZvafXGZc7hlAFieLPvso/img.png?width=980" id="9bbfd" width="1580" height="872" data-rm-shortcode-id="16ca57badee20ad55037706875f813f4" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />If you look at each line in this chart, you can see a slight dip in total species richness between 1955 and 1974. This deepens substantially in the following decades. Anthony Richardson, Author provided
<p>This global pattern — where the number of species starts lower at the poles and peaks at the equator — results in a bell-shaped gradient of species richness. We looked at distribution records for nearly 50,000 marine species collected since 1955 and found a growing dip over time in this bell shape.</p><p><span>So, as our oceans warm, species have tracked their preferred temperatures by moving towards the poles. Although the warming at the equator of 0.6℃ over the past 50 years is relatively modest compared with warming at higher latitudes, </span><a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/334/6056/652" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tropical species have to move further</a><span> to remain in their thermal niche compared with species elsewhere.</span></p><p>As ocean warming has accelerated over recent decades due to climate change, the dip around at the equator has deepened.</p><p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2769" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">We predicted</a> such a change five years ago using a modeling approach, and now we have observational evidence.</p><p><span>For each of the 10 major groups of species we studied (including pelagic fish, reef fish and molluscs) that live in the water or on the seafloor, their richness either plateaued or declined slightly at latitudes with mean annual sea-surface temperatures above 20℃.</span></p><p>Today, species richness is greatest in the northern hemisphere in latitudes around 30°N (off southern China and Mexico) and in the south around 20°S (off northern Australia and southern Brazil).</p>
This Has Happened Before
<p>We shouldn't be surprised global biodiversity has responded so rapidly to global warming. This has happened before, and with dramatic consequences.</p><p><strong>252 million years ago…</strong></p><p>At the end of the Permian geological period about 252 million years ago, global temperatures warmed by 10℃ over 30,000-60,000 years as a result of greenhouse gas emissions from volcano eruptions in Siberia.</p><p><a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/30/17578" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A 2020 study</a> of the fossils from that time shows the pronounced peak in biodiversity at the equator flattened and spread. During this mammoth rearranging of global biodiversity, 90% of all marine species were killed.</p><p><strong>125,000 years ago…</strong></p><p><a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/109/52/21378" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A 2012 study showed</a> that more recently, during the rapid warming around 125,000 years ago, there was a similar swift movement of reef corals away from the tropics, as documented in the fossil record. The result was a pattern similar to the one we describe, although there was no associated mass extinction.</p><p>Authors of the study suggested their results might foreshadow the effects of our current global warming, ominously warning there could be mass extinctions in the near future as species move into the subtropics, where they might struggle to compete and adapt.</p><p><strong>Today…</strong></p><p><a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/23/12891" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">During the last ice age</a>, which ended around 15,000 years ago, the richness of forams (a type of hard-shelled, single-celled plankton) peaked at the equator and has been dropping there ever since. This is significant as plankton is a keystone species in the foodweb.</p><p>Our study shows that decline has accelerated in recent decades due to human-driven climate change.</p>The Profound Implications
<p>Losing species in tropical ecosystems means ecological resilience to environmental changes is reduced, potentially compromising ecosystem persistence.</p><p>In subtropical ecosystems, species richness is increasing. This means there'll be species invaders, novel predator-prey interactions, and new competitive relationships. For example, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-13/sydney-growing-own-coral-reef-with-help-from-tropical-fish/11466192" target="_blank">tropical fish</a> moving into Sydney Harbour compete with temperate species for food and habitat.</p><p>This could result in ecosystem collapse — as was seen at the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods — in which species go extinct and ecosystem services (such as food supplies) are permanently altered.</p><p>The changes we describe will also have profound implications for human livelihoods. For example, many tropical island nations depend on the revenue from tuna fishing fleets through the selling of licenses in their territorial waters. Highly mobile tuna species are likely to move rapidly toward the subtropics, potentially beyond sovereign waters of island nations.</p><p><span></span>Similarly, many reef species important for artisanal fishers — and highly mobile megafauna such as whale sharks, manta rays and sea turtles that support tourism — are also likely to move toward the subtropics.</p><p>The movement of commercial and artisanal fish and marine megafauna could compromise the ability of tropical nations to meet the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals" target="_blank">Sustainable Development Goals</a> concerning zero hunger and marine life.</p>Is There Anything We Can Do?
<p>One pathway is laid out in the Paris Climate Accords and involves aggressively reducing our emissions. Other opportunities are also emerging that could help safeguard biodiversity and hopefully minimise the worst impacts of it shifting away from the equator.</p><p>Currently 2.7% of the ocean is conserved in <a href="https://mpatlas.org/" target="_blank">fully or highly protected reserves</a>. This is well short of the 10% target by 2020 under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity.</p><p>But <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/global-ocean-alliance-30by30-initiative/about#global-ocean-alliance-members" target="_blank">a group of 41 nations</a> is pushing to set a new target of protecting 30% of the ocean by 2030.</p><p>This "30 by 30" target could ban seafloor mining and remove fishing in reserves that can destroy habitats and release as much carbon dioxide as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z" target="_blank">global aviation</a>. These measures would remove pressures on biodiversity and promote ecological resilience.</p><p>Designing climate-smart reserves could further protect biodiversity from future changes. For example, reserves for marine life could be placed in refugia where the climate will be stable over the foreseeable future.</p><p>We now have evidence that climate change is impacting the best-known and strongest global pattern in ecology. We should not delay actions to try to mitigate this.</p><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/anthony-richardson-100303" target="_blank">Anthony Richardson</a>: Professor, The University of Queensland. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/chhaya-chaudhary-1223419" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chhaya Chaudhary</a>: University of Auckland, <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/david-schoeman-111544" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">David Schoeman</a>: Professor of Global-Change Ecology, University of the Sunshine Coast, <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mark-john-costello-1223418" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mark John Costello</a>: Professor, University of Auckland</em></p><p><em>Disclosure statement: Anthony Richardson receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</em></p><p><em>Chhaya Chaudhary works for Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. During her PhD studies (2014- 2019), she received part- funding from the European Marine Observation Data Network (EMODnet) Biology project funded by the European Commission's Directorate—General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (DG MARE), and received U21 Doctoral Mobility Scholarship from the University of Auckland in 2016.</em></p><p><em>David Schoeman receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</em></p><p><em>Mark John Costello does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</em></p><p><em>Reposted with permission from <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-life-is-fleeing-the-equator-to-cooler-waters-history-tells-us-this-could-trigger-a-mass-extinction-event-158424" target="_blank" style="">The Conversation</a>. </em></p>From Your Site Articles
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A Honduran couple are forced to leave their flooded home near San Pedro Sula in Honduras on November 20, 2020 in the aftermath of Hurricane Iota. Orlando Sierra / AFP / Getty Images
Climate change, the coronavirus pandemic, and growing inequality will exacerbate global volatility over the coming decades, a report by top U.S. intelligence officials released Thursday warns.
<p>The <a href="https://newsletter.climatenexus.org/e2t/tc/VWTsjT87qd5dW7wXCHj828sH-W3hB9jJ4q9zk2N7KkK2k3p_9LV1-WJV7CgYK0W87Nzcs6XC2VfW5FVYNG6PfWM5W6cKjSQ2WJ95HW7G--P08TSx52W20cH199cL0mpW5ccZvv590XM8W8lJq8v4cz-BCW91b2_04KsKYJW99J4pD7wg4l9W24T3Gl1vMFRQW16Mlq41kCSQ7VbC4Bj7KSr4NV8Rmt83--Ns7W48-qZF1QzhPSV6Rgqw2ZG-9qW7NQNcN8pWZfvW2vmLkL2qsR41W4zlyP81S9p9SW7Sm_hx2tLJHWW6XpLh-4yHKbPW4PR-2X7ClSBNW29FFzr64fftSW4zYCxZ5gmZNtW92fwgL5GsmnqW5MMX0F6qBDpdW3_74GK8GDsgmW3r0H7Y8HdG-1W5cvysl5N0pqq3mwz1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Global Trends</a> report, released every four years by the National Intelligence Council, predicted the impacts of climate change – rising temperatures, intensifying extreme weather and droughts that increase food insecurity, health risks, and conflict – would accelerate the trend of massive migration, and with it, global instability. </p><p>COVID, the report said, exposed the fragility of the world order, worsening "more and cascading global challenges, ranging from disease to climate change to the disruptions from new technologies and financial crises," the authors wrote. </p><p>"The international system – including the organizations, alliances, rules, and norms – is poorly set up to address the compounding global challenges facing populations." </p><p>Under the best-case scenario, democracies would take advantage of the opportunity to use pandemic recovery efforts to reorient national and international priorities toward solutions that would plan and adapt for climate change and other crises. </p><p>Unfortunately, said Maria Langan-Reikhof, the director of the council's strategic futures group, "greater divisions, increasing fracturing… [are] likely to continue and probably worsen."</p>
<p><strong>For a deeper dive:</strong></p><p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/us/politics/intelligence-global-trends-report-pandemic.html?searchResultPosition=4&utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120475473&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--ivQM431G6PxE1EuXu4GA4X42K0jGzJsFshTZAsj6dgh9J_Suowx26oZD22bRWS--lpJNVNSybHRl7IrLbL_kM2u2IxumE9W4UZHLvDZLqP21qN58&utm_content=120475473&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">New York Times</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/intelligence-globe-future-crises-/2021/04/08/303c350e-97df-11eb-962b-78c1d8228819_story.html?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120475473&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-_2SOTCTMkwYAOdYe9y4oiViSayTXWMNwh45DkYMJMx6_xV6pzBtU6q1kV1N-OyggxLf1ugSsEa2hSmr91HCqG7CoQ0YBcoQv8T6UzSdUX6psu5r-k&utm_content=120475473&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Washington Post</a>, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-19-fuels-inequality-political-divide-authoritarianism-world-wide-u-s-intelligence-analysts-say-11617890436?mod=searchresults_pos2&page=1&utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120475473&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-_XGtVDsjNIGA_B3P2mfo8PJMOoYtN-IzajTWcTQ_4-oYKcvSsi-4GEKBqM4PZy6-TvnfoMTYBkZPtVKb5GAFqD-NPcX7QIclL8H1xDMYUJXjGIM1o&utm_content=120475473&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Wall Street Journal</a>, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-intelligence-report/climate-change-rich-poor-gap-conflict-likely-to-grow-us-intelligence-report-idUSKBN2BV274?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120475473&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--IQFyGeNmBrKHQJk50rDBd7TNJIkc8HiR7nHP1xyqlbGtbeGb-2m0ibD0NKjhm4uvrYm87Nv2OeMGBmiDfsh769kcYzxph3L0tHY67shwsac-t4G8&utm_content=120475473&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Reuters</a>, <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/547146-intel-community-warns-of-fragile-future-shaped-by-covid-climate?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120475473&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-9p_G4Ob6FKAt0qSoixbTq3Y3wLcgxQVt6r4VmuAzJDjqH8XarcnTmGksMG6YCGOrxRjIJHdN4VW3TfCnLdiFAvfoVu-NmUMRfVK3hKHGje9E39OoM&utm_content=120475473&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">The Hill</a><br/></p><p><em>For more </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/climate-change-news/" target="_blank"><em>climate change</em></a><em> and </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/business/renewables/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>clean energy</em></a><em> news, you can follow Climate Nexus on </em><a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateNexus" target="_blank"><em>Twitter</em></a><em> and </em><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ClimateNexus/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Facebook</em></a><em>, sign up for daily </em><a href="https://www.linktrack.live/hot-news-sign-up" target="_blank"><em>Hot News</em></a><em>, and visit their news site, </em><a href="https://nexusmedianews.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Nexus Media News</em></a><em>. </em></p>From Your Site Articles
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boonchai wedmakawand / Moment / Getty Images
Delta-8 THC is a cannabis product that has become a bestseller over the past few months, as many consumers find they can legally purchase it from CBD retailers. Its proponents say that Delta-8 THC will give you a nice little buzz, minus some of the more intense feelings (including paranoia) that are sometimes associated with marijuana.
Delta-8 THC is being marketed as a legal option for consumers who either don't live in a state with legal cannabis, or are a little apprehensive about how traditional psychoactive THC products will affect them. But is it all it's cracked up to be? Let's take a closer look, exploring what Delta-8 THC is, how it differs from other THC products, and whether it's actually legal for use.
<h2>What is Delta-8 THC?</h2><p>To better understand <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/27/health/marijuana-hemp-delta-8-thc.html" target="_blank">Delta-8 THC</a>, it helps to cover some basics about THC and cannabis.</p><p>Cannabis plants come chock full of different <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>cannabinoids</em></a>. These are naturally-occuring chemical compounds that bind with receptors throughout your body. They can offer a wide range of mental, emotional, and physical effects; indeed, the healing and therapeutic properties marijuana or <a data-linked-post="2648563694" href="https://www.ecowatch.com/strongest-cbd-oil-2648563694.html" target="_blank">CBD products</a> offer can be attributed to cannabinoids.</p><p>One of the most common cannabinoids is what's known as Delta-9 THC. Simply put, this is the part of marijuana that gets you "high." It's worth noting that Delta-9 THC remains illegal in many states, except for in the most minute doses, and is still illegal at the federal level. CBD products are made with trace amounts of THC, ensuring that consumers can enjoy positive health effects in a perfectly legal way, without the risk of getting high.</p><p>On a chemical level, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/27/health/marijuana-hemp-delta-8-thc.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Delta-8 THC</a> is not too different from Delta-9 THC; the distinction comes down to just a few molecules. But those molecules make a big practical impact: Delta-8 THC will give you a buzz, but the psychoactive effects are considerably milder than with Delta-9 THC.</p><p>More specifically, many cannabis enthusiasts report that Delta-8 THC helps them feel good but also leaves them relatively clear-headed; and, it doesn't produce the anxiety or jitteriness that often characterize a Delta-9 THC high.</p><p>Additionally, because of the way the law is written regarding Delta-9 THC, some CBD companies now sell Delta-8 THC products in places where traditional cannabis is still illegal.</p><h2>What's the Difference Between Delta-9 THC and Delta-8 THC?</h2><p>Here are the primary differences to note between Delta-9 and Delta-8 THC:</p><ul class="ee-ul"><li>Delta-9 THC is the primary psychoactive ingredient found in marijuana. In other words, it's the part that gets you high.</li><li>Though some states have found workarounds, Delta-9 THC is still illegal under federal law.</li><li>Delta-8 THC is also found in the cannabis plant, though it's not quite as powerful or as well-known. </li><li>Delta-8 THC is milder in its psychoactive effects. And, it's not <em>technically </em>illegal under current law.</li></ul><p>These are just a few of the key distinctions to keep in mind. Delta-8 THC is popular among consumers who want a smoother high, and don't want to violate federal law.</p><h2>Is Delta-8 THC Legal?</h2><p>We noted that Delta-8 THC is not <em>technically </em>illegal. Here, we need to get into some of the nuanced legal considerations that surround this substance.</p><p>First of all, there are plenty of cannabis companies that actively promote Delta-8 THC as a legal way to get high. Again, that's technically true, but is still a point of debate for some.</p><p>For one thing, it's not explicitly listed as an illegal substance. While federal laws, and some state laws, specifically ban Delta-9 THC, Delta-8 THC is never mentioned. More to the point, though, many proponents will cite the<a href="https://www.usda.gov/farmbill" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> 2018 Farm Bill</a>. This law legalized several industrial hemp products on a national level, including CBD.</p><p>The Farm Bill also includes some fairly nuanced positions regarding THC. In summary, the law says that hemp and cannabis-derived products are legal so long as they contain less than 0.3 percent Delta-9 THC.</p><p>With that said, some lawyers contend that Delta-8's heyday may soon come to an end. That's because the Farm Bill clears it only so long as it's derived directly from hemp; most of the Delta-8 THC products sold today aren't made from hemp, but rather from synthetically-altered CBD.</p><p>Some of these issues are a little fuzzy, and <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/delta-8-thc-legal-weed-explained-1113859/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the legal future of Delta-8 THC</a> remains a little uncertain. For now, though, many experts would argue that it is legal to purchase.</p><h2>What Kinds of Delta-8 THC Products Are Available?</h2><p><em>Each product featured here has been independently selected by the writer. If you make a purchase using the links included, we may earn commission.</em></p><p>If you're looking to try Delta-8 THC products, you'll certainly find plenty of different products. Dispensaries and legal cannabis stores currently have a trove of products that use this cannabinoid. Some examples include:</p><ul class="ee-ul"><li>Vape cartridges, tinctures, and capsules.</li><li>Beverages made with Delta-8 THC, including some seltzers.</li><li>Edibles, including Delta-8 THC gummy bears, chocolate bars, and more.</li></ul><p>The cannabis industry has really been running with Delta-8 THC, finding creative ways to bring it to market. And chances are, even more products will be springing up in the weeks and months to come. </p><p>It's very important to note that you should only purchase Delta-8 THC products from reputable brands and established cannabis retailers. We do not recommend purchasing any products that contain Delta-8 THC from gas stations or vape shops. If you are looking for a reputable place to explore these products, here are a few brands that we trust and recommend:</p>
<h2>What are the Pros and Cons of Delta-8 THC?</h2><p>As you consider whether Delta-8 THC is worth your time, it may be helpful to weigh the pros against the cons.</p><p><strong>Pros</strong></p><p>Let's start with some of the positives:</p><ul class="ee-ul"><li>Delta-8 THC does have psychoactive effects, but it's a milder effect than with traditional Delta-9 THC.</li><li>Delta-8 THC is currently legal and widely accessible in multiple states.</li><li>There are a wide number of products that use Delta-8 THC.</li></ul><p><strong>Cons</strong></p><p>Now, a few of the downsides.</p><ul class="ee-ul"><li>Delta-8 THC isn't quite as commonplace as other cannabis products, including CBD, and some of the options on the market are expensive.</li><li>While this substance is technically legal, there are plenty of uncertainties over its legal future. It's something you want to keep in mind.</li><li>As a relatively new product, Delta-8 THC products are not regulated by the FDA and there is not independent testing in place to verify that it is safe or pure.</li></ul><p>As with any cannabis product, Delta-8 THC has its pros and cons. As you seek the cannabis product that's best for you, it's largely a matter of personal preference.</p><p>Also note that smoking, vaping, or otherwise imbibing any kind of cannabis-related product can carry some medical risks and negative health consequences. If you have any specific concerns, we recommend consulting with your doctor before you try any Delta-8 THC product.</p><p><em><strong>Josh Hurst </strong></em><em>is a journalist, critic, and essayist. He lives in Knoxville, TN, with his wife and three sons. He covers natural health, nutrition, supplements, and clean energy. His writing has appeared in Health, Shape, and Remedy Review.</em></p>
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An algal bloom on a pond in Heather Farm Park, Walnut Creek, California on Oct. 8, 2016. Smith Collection / Gado / Getty Images
Harmful algal blooms may be even more harmful than we thought.
<p>They have already been shown to kill the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/toxic-algae-blooms-florida-1915716568.html" target="_self">fish that swim</a> in the water they infest or the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/toxic-algae-dogs-nyc-2640040842.html" target="_self">animals that drink</a> from it. Now, new research indicates they could even poison the air. In a<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10402381.2021.1881191" target="_blank"> study published in Lake and Reservoir Management this month</a>, scientists for the first time detected an airborne instance of the algal toxin anatoxin-a (ATX), also known as "very fast death factor."</p><p>"ATX is one of the more dangerous cyanotoxins produced by harmful algal blooms, which are becoming more predominant in lakes and ponds worldwide due to global warming and <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/climate-change/" target="_self">climate change</a>," study lead author Dr. James Sutherland of the Nantucket Land Council said in a <a href="https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/algal-blooms-can-release-very-fast-death-factor-toxin-into-the-air" target="_blank">press release</a>.</p>
<p>ATX is a toxin made by cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae. Despite their name, these single-celled organisms are not plants but rather bacteria that can photosynthesize. The toxin can cause loss of coordination, muscular twitching and respiratory paralysis. It has been known to kill livestock, pets and other animals that drink contaminated water.</p><p>"Although no previous studies have documented the capture of airborne ATX molecules or cyanobacteria cells containing ATX, we hypothesized that ATX could become airborne under certain environmental conditions," the study authors wrote.</p><p>To test this idea, the scientists devised a way to sample the air above a pond in Nantucket, Massachusetts dealing with a harmful algal bloom (HAB). They brought an air sampling device to the shore on windy days and collected airborne particles on filters. They also tested the water for the presence of the toxin.</p>
<p>The scientists collected their samples between July and October of 2019. They detected ATX in the water at concentrations as high as 21 nanograms per milliliter, <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-have-found-that-a-dangerous-algal-bloom-toxin-can-be-found-in-the-air" target="_blank">Science Alert reported</a>. And, on one foggy and windy day in September, they detected it in the air also. They recorded an average of 0.87 nanograms per filter on their air sampling device, which would equal an airborne exposure of 0.16 nanograms per meter squared.</p><p>The researchers are not sure how the toxin ended up in the air, but think the wind might have blown it in small droplets from the pond, and then the fog allowed it to persist for longer than usual. In any case, it is a problem worth investigating further.</p><p>"These findings indicate that emission of ATX molecules, or cyanobacteria containing ATX, during HABs presents a potential human health exposure not previously examined," the researchers wrote.</p>
<p>Harmful algal blooms are a problem for many other reasons, of course. They can deprive water of oxygen as they decompose, killing fish and degrading water quality, the press release explained. They are also made worse by human activity, according to Science Alert. They are fed partly by excess nutrient pollution from agricultural runoff. As Sutherland noted, they are also <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/harmful-algal-blooms-2646107064.html" target="_self">exacerbated</a> by the climate crisis. The cyanobacteria prefer warmer water temperatures, and heavy rain from extreme weather events can wash more fertilizer and other nutrients into bodies of water.</p><p>The research just signals another reason to be wary of pond scum.</p><p>"People often recreate around these lakes and ponds with algal blooms without any awareness of the potential problems," Sutherland said in the press release. "Direct contact or inhalation of these cyanotoxins can present health risks for individuals, and we have reported a potential human health exposure not previously examined."</p>
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Extensive bike parking is seen in Amsterdam's city center. AleksandarGeorgiev / Getty Images
By Christian Brand
Globally, only one in 50 new cars were fully electric in 2020, and one in 14 in the UK. Sounds impressive, but even if all new cars were electric now, it would still take 15-20 years to replace the world's fossil fuel car fleet.
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<p>The emission savings from replacing all those internal combustion engines with zero-carbon alternatives will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0121-1" target="_blank">not feed in fast enough</a> to make the necessary difference in the time we can spare: the <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-a-carbon-neutral-uk-the-next-five-years-are-critical-heres-what-must-happen-151708" target="_blank">next five years</a>. Tackling the climate and air pollution crises requires curbing all motorized transport, particularly private cars, as quickly as possible. Focusing solely on electric vehicles is slowing down the <a href="https://unfccc.int/climate-action/race-to-zero-campaign" target="_blank">race to zero emissions</a>.</p><p>This is partly because electric cars aren't <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/transport-and-environment-report-2020" target="_blank">truly zero-carbon</a> – mining the raw materials for their batteries, manufacturing them and generating the electricity they run on produces emissions.</p><p>Transport is one of the most challenging sectors to decarbonize due to its <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/transport/term/increasing-oil-consumption-and-ghg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">heavy fossil fuel use</a> and reliance on <a href="https://www.transportforqualityoflife.com/u/files/The%20carbon%20impact%20of%20the%20national%20roads%20programme%20FINAL.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carbon-intensive infrastructure</a> – such as roads, airports and the vehicles themselves - and the way it embeds <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/reversing-car-dependency" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">car-dependent lifestyles</a>. One way to reduce transport emissions relatively quickly, and potentially <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.017" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">globally</a>, is to swap cars for cycling, e-biking and walking – active travel, as it's called.</p><p>Active travel is cheaper, healthier, better for the environment, and no slower on congested urban streets. So how much carbon can it save on a daily basis? And what is its role in reducing emissions from transport overall?</p><p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102764" target="_blank">In new research</a>, colleagues and I reveal that people who walk or cycle have lower carbon footprints from daily travel, including in cities where lots of people are already doing this. Despite the fact that some walking and cycling happens on top of motorized journeys instead of replacing them, more people switching to active travel would equate to lower carbon emissions from transport on a daily and trip-by-trip basis.</p>
<h2>What a Difference a Trip Makes</h2><p>We observed around 4,000 people living in London, Antwerp, Barcelona, Vienna, Orebro, Rome and Zurich. Over a two-year period, our participants completed 10,000 travel diary entries which served as records of all the trips they made each day, whether going to work by train, taking the kids to school by car or riding the bus into town. For each trip, we calculated the carbon footprint.</p><p>Strikingly, people who cycled on a daily basis had 84% lower carbon emissions from all their daily travel than those who didn't.</p><p>We also found that the average person who shifted from car to bike for just one day a week cut their carbon footprint by 3.2kg of CO₂ – equivalent to the emissions from driving a car for 10km, eating a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-46459714" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">serving of lamb or chocolate</a>, or <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200305-why-your-internet-habits-are-not-as-clean-as-you-think" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sending 800 emails</a>.</p><p>When we compared the life cycle of each travel mode, taking into account the carbon generated by making the vehicle, fueling it and disposing of it, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102764" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">we found</a> that emissions from cycling can be more than 30 times lower for each trip than driving a fossil fuel car, and about ten times lower than driving an electric one.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102224" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">We also estimate</a> that urban residents who switched from driving to cycling for just one trip per day reduced their carbon footprint by about half a tonne of CO₂ over the course of a year, and save the equivalent emissions of a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-46459714" target="_blank">one-way flight</a> from London to New York. If just one in five urban residents permanently changed their travel behavior in this way over the next few years, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102224" target="_blank">we estimate</a> it would cut emissions from all car travel in Europe by about 8%.</p><p>Nearly half of the fall in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0797-x" target="_blank">daily carbon emissions</a> during global lockdowns in 2020 came from reductions in transport emissions. The pandemic forced countries around the world to adapt to reduce the spread of the virus. In the UK, walking and cycling have been the big winners, with a <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/at-a-crossroads-travel-adaptations-during-covid-19-restrictions-and-where-next/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">20% rise</a> in people walking regularly, and cycling levels increasing by <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/covid-transport-report.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">9% on weekdays and 58% on weekends</a> compared to pre-pandemic levels. This is despite cycle commuters being <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/covid-transport-report.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">very likely to work from home</a>.</p><p>Active travel has offered an alternative to cars that keeps social distancing intact. It has helped people to stay safe during the pandemic and it could help reduce emissions as confinement is eased, particularly as the high prices of some electric vehicles are likely to put many potential buyers off for now.</p><p>So the race is on. Active travel can contribute to tackling the climate emergency earlier than electric vehicles while also providing affordable, reliable, clean, healthy and congestion-busting transportation.</p>
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<em><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/christian-brand-501349" target="_blank">Christian Brand</a> is an </em><em>Associate Professor in Transport, Energy & Environment, Transport Studies Unit, University of Oxford.</em>
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<em>Disclosure statement: </em><em><em>Christian Brand received funding for this work from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme via the 'Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches' project and UK Research and Innovation via the Centre for Research on Energy Demand Solutions and the UK Energy Research Centre.</em></em>
</p><p>
<em><em></em>Reposted with permission from <a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-is-ten-times-more-important-than-electric-cars-for-reaching-net-zero-cities-157163" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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Fossil evidence indicates that the Amazon's plant life changed about 66 million years ago. Travelpix Ltd / Getty Images
About 66 million years ago, a 12-km asteroid struck Earth. The massive heat and impact likely triggered tidal waves and clouded the skies with ash, The Washington Post reported. Scientists estimate that up to 75 percent of all life on land went extinct, including the dinosaurs.
<p><br>The space rock that triggered that mass extinction event is also the likely reason we have the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/amazon-rainforest" target="_self">Amazon Rainforest</a>, a new study suggests. Published in the prestigious journal <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/372/6537/63" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Science</a>, the research indicates that that same asteroid that killed the dinosaurs also birthed all of Earth's tropical <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/rainforests" target="_self">rainforests</a>.</p><p>"A global catastrophe involving a mass extinction <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/antarctica-rainforest-dinosaurs-2645618791.html" target="_self">produces a different world</a>," wrote Bonnie F. Jacobs and Ellen D. Currano in an<a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.abh2086" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"> article</a> accompanying the study.</p><p>Mónica Carvalho, study co-author from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institution (STRI) in Panama, examined tens of thousands of fossils in Columbia to understand how the plant life in Central and South America shifted from before and after the impact, reported <a href="https://nerdist.com/article/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-changed-earth-rainforests/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Nerdist</a>. Her team discovered that the type of vegetation comprising the continent's forests drastically changed from before and after. Before the crash, widely spaced conifers and ferns filled the region, allowing in large amounts of light, The Post reported.</p><p>After the asteroid struck, many species went extinct, particularly seed-bearing plants. Plant diversity declined about 45 percent after the impact, researchers found. Examining more than 50,000 fossil pollen records, the team discovered that flowering plants called angiosperms took over as the forests recovered during the next six million years. These filled in where other species had gone extinct, leading to the "reign of flowers," an <a href="https://stri.si.edu/story/flowers" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">STRI press release</a> noted.</p>
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<p>The impact also changed the spatial structure of forests, from widely spaced to densely packed. Leaf data from more than 6,000 fossils shows that the thick, dense tropical canopy associated with today's rainforests did not develop until after the impact. The data suggests that the spatial change from "relatively open to closed and layered... led to increased vertical stratification and a larger diversity of plant growth forms," <a href="https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/the-same-asteroid-that-wiped-out-dinosaurs-may-have-led-to-creation-of-the-amazon-rainforest-3602573.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">News18</a> reported. As trees grew taller and closer, they partially blocked the sun, allowing different species of flowering plants to flourish, the Post reported. This is how Earth's most diverse terrestrial ecosystem — the tropical rainforests teeming with bright bromeliads and abundant orchids — developed, the study implies.</p><p>As for why, the researchers offered three theories: dinosaurs had kept the forest open and sparse by feeding on and trampling plants; falling ash enriched soils, giving an advantage to faster-growing flowering plants; and preferential extinction of conifers created the opportunity for flowering plants to take over.</p><p>While scientists aren't sure which theory, or combination of theories, created modern rainforests, Carvalho did conclude with one key takeaway: "The lesson learned here is that under rapid disturbances... tropical ecosystems do not just bounce back; they are replaced, and the process takes a really long time."</p>
<div id="0582f" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="849f33f2dcf8ca7c95c2b00b14ee7a38"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet twitter-custom-tweet" data-twitter-tweet-id="1379471492845551621" data-partner="rebelmouse"><div style="margin:1em 0">The end-Cretaceous asteroid impact that resulted in the destruction of nearly 75% of Earth's terrestrial life drast… https://t.co/nMS1dbmCCb</div> — Science Magazine (@Science Magazine)<a href="https://twitter.com/ScienceMagazine/statuses/1379471492845551621">1617726607.0</a></blockquote></div>
<p>The shift in plant species and tree density likely also impacted the past and present climate, the STRI release added. Tropical rainforests, and the Amazon in particular, are some of the planet's most <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/amazon-rainforest-greenhouse-gas-2651034322.html" target="_self">important carbon sinks</a>. By absorbing greenhouse gases, the trees help curb <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/climate-change/" target="_self">the climate crisis</a> and keep Earth habitable.</p><p>"The sparser canopies of the pre-impact forests, with fewer flowering plants, would have moved less soil water into the atmosphere than did those that grew up in the millions of years afterward," the STRI release explained. This increased humidity and cloud coverage, making the area much more productive, <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/the-dino-killing-asteroid-birthed-todays-rainforests/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Wired</a> reported.</p><p>Legume trees, a dominant feature in today's tropical rainforests, also entered the fossil record after the impact. These trees, with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their roots, fix nitrogen into soil, Wired reported. Without these shifts in forest spacing and makeup, today's climate could have developed differently.</p><p>The researchers hope the new study can help scientists understand how today's rainforests will respond to the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/co2-levels-day-of-dinosaurs-2354201799.html" target="_self">rapidly changing climate</a> currently threatening their existence.</p><p>According to Wired, Carvalho also warned, "The changes we are seeing today in relation to climate and deforestation are so rapid that <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/mass-extinction-human-activity-2645629680.html" target="_self">we haven't really seen them in any other scenario in the history of the planet</a>. Extinction is something that occurs really fast."</p>
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Flooding and a coal ash spill at Duke Energy's Sutton power plant near Wilmington, North Carolina on Sept. 21, 2018 after Hurricane Florence. Jo-Anne McArthur / Waterkeeper Alliance Inc. / Flickr
The threat of a catastrophic failure unleashing a 20-foot wall of industrial wastewater over nearby homes and businesses in Piney Point, Florida, illustrates the danger of widespread reliance on industrial waste ponds across the U.S., The New York Times reports.
<p>Many of these ponds, filled with toxic and sometimes radioactive, byproducts of climate-change causing activity like coal ash from power plants or manure from industrialized farms, are also at risk because of <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/climate-change">climate change</a>. Open lagoons make up the extent of waste processing infrastructure for industrial hog farming operations and coal-fired power plants and both were overwhelmed by Hurricane Florence in 2018, when more than 100 hog lagoons were swamped throughout the Carolinas and coal ash poured out of containment ponds at Duke's Sutton Plant in Wilmington, N.C.</p>
<p>"They're just an irresponsible way to store very dangerous waste," Daniel Estrin, general counsel at the Waterkeeper Alliance, a clean water nonprofit group, told the Times. "And with climate change, we're going to see more frequent and stronger storms that are going to impact these sites."</p>
<p><strong>For a deeper dive:</strong><br/></p><p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/06/climate/florida-ponds-toxic-waste.html?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120059140&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--7eP3zgxhlzcvHgwaim68C3oXRKWOBGOYqg1KEuTVT3twTL-kq3yJ1XOmscdsRIBcWA5VDWFfHrJ2FYaiehFyb1ZsddA&utm_content=120059140&utm_source=hs_email" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The New York Times</a>; Climate Signals background: <a href="https://www.climatesignals.org/climate-change-hurricanes?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=120059140&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8RVe9qLc9A_flyV55SUwFQJqu1Ts8h1WEyzmW5yz_5MFVfGcAhnWnjE7H4kFcj-T2p93-lr66487EJ28_hrhNTBicCBg&utm_content=120059140&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Hurricanes</a></p><p><em>For more </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/climate-change-news/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>climate change</em></a><em> and </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/business/renewables/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>clean energy</em></a><em> news, you can follow Climate Nexus on </em><a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateNexus" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Twitter</em></a><em> and </em><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ClimateNexus/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Facebook</em></a><em>, sign up for daily </em><a href="https://www.linktrack.live/hot-news-sign-up" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Hot News</em></a><em>, and visit their news site, </em><a href="https://nexusmedianews.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Nexus Media News</em></a><em>.</em></p>From Your Site Articles
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An airplane view shows a lake of meltwater in the Greenland ice sheet on August 04, 2019 near Ilulissat, Greenland. Sean Gallup / Getty Images
A new study of Greenland's glacial rivers has important implications for how scientists might model future ice melt and subsequent sea level rise.
<p>Previously, researchers thought they could measure ice melt simply by looking at the amount of meltwater sitting on top of <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/glaciers" target="_self">glaciers</a> and in moulins — shafts in the glacier that empty rivers from the surface to the interior, <a href="https://earther.gizmodo.com/hundreds-of-glacial-rivers-are-pouring-into-the-belly-o-1846627516" target="_blank">Earther explained</a>. But the new study, published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020GL091418" target="_blank">Geophysical Research Letters</a> on Monday, found that a glacier's speed increased when water pressure rapidly changed beneath the ice sheet, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/what-a-glacial-river-reveals-about-the-greenland-ice-sheet" target="_blank">NASA explained</a>.</p><p>"These findings will help to refine ice sliding models, which are critically important for predicting future ice sheet contributions to global sea level rise," Laurence Smith, study coauthor and Brown University environmental studies professor, told Earther.</p><p>The Greenland ice sheet is extremely important when it comes to global sea level rise. The size of Mexico, it currently contributes more to rising sea levels than any other source, NASA reported. If all of Greenland's ice sheet were to melt, it would increase water levels by 20 feet, according to Earther.</p><p>"The number one reason we are here is all about global sea level rise," Smith said in a video documenting the research. "Greenland is the single largest melting chunk of ice in the world. What really matters is how much of that water in the ice sheet gets out to the ocean."</p>
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<p>To better understand the dynamics driving this melt, Smith and his team traveled to the Russell Glacier in southwestern Greenland in 2016 and studied a glacial river, NASA said. The researchers recorded the forward motion of the glacier itself, the amount of meltwater pouring into the moulin and the amount of meltwater pouring out from beneath the glacier at the water's edge. They determined that changes in subterranean water pressure were driving the glacier's overall speed.</p><p>"Even if the cavities are small, as long as the pressure is ramping up very fast, they will make the ice slide faster," Smith explained.</p><p>NASA Glaciologist Dr. Lauren Andrews compared a glacier moving over subterranean meltwater to car tires sliding on a wet road.</p><p>"If you have a rapid perturbation of water going into the subglacial system, you overwhelm the system, and so you create essentially a layer of water at the interface that's not contained in channels or cavities anymore," Andrews said.</p><p>The way that water pressure drives glacier speed had never been studied in the field before, NASA said. This new research now adds 168 hours of "rare in situ" measurements to understand the dynamics of glacial rivers, which had previously been overlooked.</p><p>"In 2015 when we started this study, there was surprisingly little attention paid to the hydrology of streams and rivers on the ice sheet, especially inland away from the ice edge, and we felt that this was a critical scientific gap," Smith said in the video.</p><p>The research supports the team's initial feeling.</p><p>"These findings affirm the importance of supraglacial rivers to subglacial water pressure and ice dynamics, even in relatively thick ice," the researchers wrote.</p>
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The atmospheric carbon dioxide number is the highest it's ever been since NOAA began measuring in the late 1950s. David McNew / Getty Images
By Kenny Stancil
The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide surged past 420 parts per million for the first time in recorded history this past weekend, according to a measurement taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory on the Big Island of Hawaii.
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<p>When the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) research station "began collecting CO2 measurements in the late 1950s, atmospheric CO2 concentration sat at around 315 PPM," the <em>Washington Post</em> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2021/04/05/atmospheric-co2-concentration-record/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reported</a>. "On Saturday, the daily average was pegged at 421.21 PPM—the first time in human history that number has been so high."</p><p>Climate activist Greta Thunberg took notice of NOAA's most recent data on CO2 levels. She described the first-ever documented eclipse of 420 PPM of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere as "truly groundbreaking."</p>
<div id="a065c" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="119cbc41af39b702fc8cbfd0beb7c3b3"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet twitter-custom-tweet" data-twitter-tweet-id="1379021499651215360" data-partner="rebelmouse"><div style="margin:1em 0">Is this is confirmed, then it is truly groundbreaking to say the least. And I don’t mean that in a good way... https://t.co/vwFOENLcWQ</div> — Greta Thunberg (@Greta Thunberg)<a href="https://twitter.com/GretaThunberg/statuses/1379021499651215360">1617619321.0</a></blockquote></div>
<p>Exceeding 420 PPM of the heat-trapping gas "is a disconcerting milestone in the human-induced warming of the planet, around the halfway point on our path toward doubling preindustrial CO2 levels," the <em>Post</em> noted, adding:</p><blockquote>There is special significance in reaching and surpassing a concentration of 416 PPM. It means <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/met-office-atmospheric-co2-now-hitting-50-higher-than-pre-industrial-levels" target="_blank">we've passed the midpoint</a> between preindustrial CO2 levels, around 278 PPM, and a doubling of that figure, or 556 PPM.<br><br>The record of 421 PPM reached Saturday is just a single point and occurred as CO2 levels are nearing their yearly peak. But <a href="https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/webdata/ccgg/trends/co2_weekly_mlo.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the levels over the past two months</a>, of more than 417 PPM, signal that the annual average concentration is likely to exceed 416 PPM.<br></blockquote><p>While the growing concentration of atmospheric CO2—which increases the global average temperature and the <a href="https://www.commondreams.org/news/2020/11/18/no-vaccine-climate-change-coronavirus-has-been-disastrous-says-red-cross-global" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">number and severity of extreme weather events</a>—is a long-term trend that corresponds with the rise of fossil fuel-powered capitalism, it has accelerated particularly rapidly since the 1970s.</p>
<div id="cdb0a" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="0e96eaf3ca6f4b665c793281771dda9c"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet twitter-custom-tweet" data-twitter-tweet-id="1379112104687456256" data-partner="rebelmouse"><div style="margin:1em 0">CO2 concentration at the Mauna Loa Observatory reached a daily record of 421.21 Parts Per Million (PPM) on April 3.… https://t.co/2KYjC8IntE</div> — Steve Bowen (@Steve Bowen)<a href="https://twitter.com/SteveBowenWx/statuses/1379112104687456256">1617640923.0</a></blockquote></div>
<p>The doubling of atmospheric CO2 is<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/22/climate/global-warming-temperature-range.html" target="_blank"> expected</a> to increase Earth's temperature by 2.6 to 4.1ºC above preindustrial averages, a level of planetary heating that would "<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2020/07/22/climate-sensitivity-co2/?itid=lk_inline_manual_27" target="_blank">rul[e] out more modest warming scenarios</a>," as the <em>Post</em> noted.</p><p>"Even if greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were to plummet overnight, the planet would continue warming for years to come," the <em>Post</em> added. That's because, as Zeke Hausfather, a climate scientist at the Breakthrough Institute in California, told the newspaper: "The amount of warming that the world is experiencing is a result of all of our emissions since the industrial revolution—not just our emissions in the last year."</p><p>As the <em>Post</em> reported, CO2 isn't the only GHG with "worrying trends." Emissions of methane and sulfur hexafluoride have spiked, too.</p><p>Although methane doesn't remain in the atmosphere as long as CO2, it absorbs heat much more effectively, which means that it greatly exacerbates the climate crisis. <a href="https://www.edf.org/climate/methane-other-important-greenhouse-gas" target="_blank">According to</a> the Environmental Defense Fund, methane is 84 times more potent than CO2 in the first two decades after its release. </p><p>Here's the <em>Post</em> on sulfur hexafluoride, a GHG that "results from the production of insulators used on electrical grids [and] also reached all-time records of 10 parts per trillion":</p><blockquote>While its concentration remains orders of magnitude more dilute than that of most other major greenhouse gases, its rate of increase in the atmosphere has doubled since 2003.<br></blockquote><blockquote>Sulfur hexafluoride is also thousands of times more potent—a single molecule <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar4-wg1-chapter2-1.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">can cause 23,900 times more warming </a>than a molecule of CO2. And a single molecule of sulfur hexafluoride can stick around in the atmosphere for more than three millennia.<br></blockquote><p>While the Paris climate agreement seeks to limit the rise in annual mean global temperature to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/03/every-choice-matters-can-we-cling-to-hope-of-avoiding-15c-heating" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1.5°C </a>above preindustrial averages by the end of the 21st century, the World Meteorological Organization <a href="https://www.commondreams.org/news/2020/07/09/humanity-track-soon-hit-15oc-paris-accord-limit-atmospheric-co2-nears-level-not-seen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">warned</a> last year that there is a 20% chance the world will hit or surpass that level of warming in at least one year by 2024.</p><p>"The science is clear," United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres<a href="https://www.commondreams.org/news/2020/12/02/un-chief-pleads-stronger-climate-policies-end-suicidal-addiction-fossil-fuels" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> said</a> in December. "Unless the world cuts fossil fuel production by 6% every year between now and 2030, things will get worse. Much worse."</p><p>As forest ecologist Giorgio Matteucci <a href="https://twitter.com/GioMatLTER/status/1378981666132201474" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tweeted </a>Monday, "We have to act!"</p>
<p><em>Reposted with permission from <a href="https://www.commondreams.org/news/2021/04/06/we-have-act-atmospheric-co2-passes-420-ppm-first-time-ever" target="_blank">Common Dreams</a>.</em></p>From Your Site Articles
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Amazon and other tech employees hold a walkout past the Amazon Spheres during the Global Climate Strike on Sept. 20, 2019 in Seattle, Washington. Karen Ducey / Getty Images
Amazon illegally fired two employees after they publicly criticized the company for its lack of action on climate change and its failure to protect warehouse workers from the novel coronavirus, the National Labor Relations Board determined.
<p>Emily Cunningham and Maren Costa were highly visible members of the small group of Amazon employees who in 2018 called for Amazon to do more to address climate change, and eventually got 8,700 colleagues to sign on to their efforts. They were fired last April, not long after their group of about 400 employees spoke out, in intentional and public violation of Amazon's tightened down internal policies clamping down on employee criticism. </p>
<p>Cunningham and Costa allege they were fired in retaliation for their activism. If they and Amazon do not settle the case, the NLRB will accuse Amazon of unfair labor practices and the case will go before an administrative law judge. Also this week, the NLRB will be counting votes to see if Amazon's 6,000 Alabama warehouse employees will unionize, a potentially major change for the company's <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/3/22365330/amazon-apology-pee-bottles-worker-warehouse-union-pocan?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8ItpXkY_pAKfwD2uu3GqAjLjvjaB-o5UcgzXAWs9eIOrg54B29VS_nJspYoK5ANgHeZXSUHmP5bUju45O0w37yDtV6Lw&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">notoriously exploitative</a> labor practices.</p>
<p>As reported by <a href="https://apnews.com/article/climate-climate-change-coronavirus-pandemic-a849bd3728242774ad6dbcb3aec5370a?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8HYci1M4nt7jFq2KU1Z3CVE6_OzTsL3eWrEz4az0bWubUd8mtIzQoMjhESNcA7mINPDP9XZ6N6Ow4otTxQAlJ-A-OhLA&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">The Associated Press</a>:</p><blockquote>Cunningham said the ruling proves that they were on the right side of history.</blockquote><blockquote>"Amazon tried to silence us," said Cunningham. "It didn't work."</blockquote><blockquote>Because of the ruling, Amazon could be forced to offer Cunningham and Costa their jobs back, pay them back pay and reimburse them for expenses related to losing their jobs.</blockquote><blockquote>Cunningham and Costa, who were user-experience designers at Amazon, were the two most prominent voices among a group of workers who wanted the company, which has a giant carbon footprint, to take more steps to combat climate change and to stop doing business with oil and gas companies. They held protests and spoke to the media about their concerns.</blockquote><blockquote>About a year ago, Cunningham and Costa planned a call between Amazon warehouse and office workers to talk about unsafe conditions in the e-commerce giant's warehouses. Before it could happen, Amazon fired both women. An Amazon executive quit in protest, saying he couldn't stand by as whistleblowers were silenced.</blockquote>
<p><strong>For a deeper dive:</strong><br/></p><p> (NLRB determination: <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/05/technology/amazon-nlrb-activist-workers.html?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8nZCaxs2GAMxLZ-kVDYUrqZs3eDVpntkt6Q8gYIEBJUPeMOs4Kz47-95IxDJ5XovhR5HOhwd_qMhyLTcYYehIvESmsbQ&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">New York Times</a>, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/climate-climate-change-coronavirus-pandemic-a849bd3728242774ad6dbcb3aec5370a?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8HYci1M4nt7jFq2KU1Z3CVE6_OzTsL3eWrEz4az0bWubUd8mtIzQoMjhESNcA7mINPDP9XZ6N6Ow4otTxQAlJ-A-OhLA&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">AP</a>, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN2BS0P7?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--8g__E1HNyyVVEQKT24txauj8AFWA-2j38jU95gTlXQs8VrYAGezLJNsKjlXXwoNb1qhlfcpLAZaS6_L1dIGPxD9-xsQ&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Reuters</a>; Amazon policy change: <a href="https://earther.gizmodo.com/amazon-can-t-just-change-its-rules-to-squash-activism-1846621533?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--FLBKYlVBJ2ZfIIa7OtORzhdZq-dfBDyT6Xgnckvd_dm6ad-Kj5-KNpTghHi4kCwgWcWideHVf5s9-NU4YycfkL5K4yQ&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">Earther</a>; Union vote: <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/05/technology/amazon-control-bathroom-breaks.html?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8adhd83OQqBC8o4bj7aM3wedandiQeBKYxDkxahU3fS2wmmrypwvd58GS2xEMUGJ5r0EQIEXtFzXAXQGnj-B6igz9LTA&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">New York Times</a>, <a href="https://www.al.com/business/2021/04/most-americans-support-alabama-amazon-union-drive-poll-finds.html?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=119852335&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-9Fj-TTaMDN4OVSnDedLUNWgPZs5gnc7cYYrmdEWlUXW9efGjCZXNDYknbND6LEToIpi_zd5zS6IghNTO0fV2Li7mqAag&utm_content=119852335&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">AL.com</a>)</p><p><em>For more </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/climate-change-news/" target="_blank"><em>climate change</em></a><em> and </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/business/renewables/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>clean energy</em></a><em> news, you can follow Climate Nexus on </em><a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateNexus" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Twitter</em></a><em> and </em><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ClimateNexus/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Facebook</em></a><em>, sign up for daily </em><a href="https://www.linktrack.live/hot-news-sign-up" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Hot News</em></a><em>, and visit their news site, </em><a href="https://nexusmedianews.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><em>Nexus Media News</em></a><em>.</em></p>From Your Site Articles
- Employees Are Fighting for Climate Change at Work - EcoWatch ›
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Wisconsin DNR fire crews battle a wildfire in Menomonee Falls that burned nearly 450 acres of marshland on Friday, and has since been contained. Wisconsin DNR / Marc Sass, DNR Cooperative Area Forest Ranger
Wisconsin Gov. Tony Evers declared a state of emergency on Monday due to heightened wildfire risk.
<p>The state's wildfire season got an early start thanks to an early snow melt, <a href="https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/wisconsin/2021/04/05/evers-issues-state-emergency-wildfires-blaze-across-wisconsin/7094810002/" target="_blank">the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported</a>. So far this year, more than 320 fires have scorched more than 1,500 acres, nearly reaching the total of 1,630.13 acres that were burned in all of 2020, according to the declaration.</p><p>"With nearly the entire state experiencing high or very high fire risk, protecting Wisconsinites from the destructive dangers of wildfires is a top priority," Evers said when announcing the order, according to the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.</p><p>The emergency order gives the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR), which usually handles firefighting in the state, additional resources. It will now receive support from other state agencies, as well as the Wisconsin National Guard and their Black Hawk helicopters, the DNR noted in a <a href="https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/newsroom/release/42726" target="_blank">press release</a>.</p><p>The announcement comes three days after brush fire erupted in Menomonee Falls, forcing some people to evacuate their homes, <a href="https://www.wisn.com/article/firefighters-battle-multiple-brush-fires-in-menomonee-falls/36017496#" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WISN reported</a>. The fires burned 400 acres of marshland, the largest single burn so far this year, but luckily all of the homes were spared. Only a deer stand burned down.</p><p>However, the dry and windy conditions that fueled those fires are expected to persist in the state, leading Evers to declare an emergency.</p>
<p>"[B]ased upon weather predictions from the National Weather Service, Wisconsin will experience a period of warmer temperatures, lower humidity, and high winds that can quickly ignite wildland and create rapidly spreading fires," the order read.<br></p><p>Dry leaves and grass are also fueling the flames, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported. The majority of counties are at high risk for fire, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/wisconsin-state-emergency-wildfire-risks-over-1-400-acres-already-n1263088" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">NBC News reported</a>, and the DNR has suspended annual burning permits while asking people to avoid setting fires.</p><p>"To help us keep Wisconsinites safe, the DNR is asking you to avoid all outdoor burning including limiting the use of campfires and making sure to extinguish and dispose of cigarettes properly," the DNR said in its press release.</p><p>While wildfires can occur in Wisconsin any time of the year, the primary season runs from March until May, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/04/06/us/wisconsin-wildfire" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The New York Times reported</a>. The state's wildfire risk may also be increasing because of the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/climate-change/" target="_self">climate crisis</a>. The group Climate Power 2020 told the <a href="https://wisconsinexaminer.com/brief/climate-group-says-wisconsins-risk-of-wildfires-may-be-growing/#:~:text=Climate%20Power%202020%20also%20says,burned%205%2C768%20acres%20of%20land.&text=Climate%20change%20in%20Wisconsin%20is,keep%20the%20fire%20risks%20down." rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Wisconsin Examiner</a> that wildfires were becoming more common. While high humidity usually lessens fire risk, Wisconsin experienced two climate-related <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/drought" target="_self">droughts</a> between 2009 and 2016 that cost $45.9 billion in damages, and future droughts could increase fire danger.</p><p>Nationwide, the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/extreme-weather-climate-change-2647639196-2647639196.html" target="_blank">climate crisis is certainly driving fire risk</a>; 2020 alone brought a devastating wildfire season to the Western U.S., NBC noted. However, this spring wildfires have taken off in the Upper Plains, Rockies, Great Lakes and Southwest.</p><p>"Fire season can be at any time," Bureau of Land Management Spokesperson Carrie Bilbao told NBC News. "We just don't really have those wet seasons consistently anymore."</p>
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A woman is seen collecting drinking water in Satkhira, Bangladesh on March 20, 2021. Kazi Salahuddin Razu / NurPhoto / Getty Images
By Sam Baker
What really makes this reporter's stomach churn thinking about climate change? Thawing permafrost. A scenario where it all melts, releasing copious amounts of CO2 and methane (it holds twice as much carbon as the atmosphere holds right now), and there's no going back.
<p>But what's at the top of the list of concerns for those who study how climate change is unfolding – on <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/melting-ice-whats-the-big-deal/a-56872079" target="_blank">ice sheets</a> and urban street corners, in <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/oceans-key-to-solving-climate-crisis-say-world-leaders/a-55789573" target="_blank">oceans</a> and <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/how-climate-change-threatens-african-coffee-farmers/a-55648060" target="_blank">farm fields</a> – the climate scientists themselves?</p><p>DW asked a dozen experts spanning climatology, entomology, oceanography and yes, permafrost research, what keeps them up at night when it comes to the climate.</p><h2>The Greatest Unknown – People</h2><p>Nana Ama Browne Klutse <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348892571_The_Climatic_Analysis_of_Summer_Monsoon_Extreme_Precipitation_Events_over_West_Africa_in_CMIP6_Simulations" target="_blank">studies changing weather</a> with climate models at the University of Ghana. While she says tipping points like permafrost thaw worry her, she also worries how individuals will handle changing climates.</p><p>"What can you do as an individual to avoid the impact of climate change?" she asked. "We need government policies for resilience, building of community, city resilience. Then we need that global action."<span></span></p><p>Climate scientist Ruth Mottram studies the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347619694_Higher_mass_loss_over_Greenland_and_Antarctic_ice_sheets_projected_in_CMIP6_than_CMIP5_by_high_resolution_regional_downscaling_EC-Earth" target="_blank">Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets</a> and sea level rise for the Danish Meteorological Institute, but it's not the science that worries her.</p><p>"I'm less concerned that there are unknown processes going on that we don't understand, and there could potentially be some unforeseen catastrophe on the way," she said. "We know what a lot of the impacts are going to be. I think what keeps me awake at night in a metaphorical sense is really the interaction between the physical system and how human societies are going to handle it."</p><p>Giving the example of sea level, she says we will see a meter rise this century — in our lifetimes or that of our children — and will have to make tough decisions about our coastal cities. But she says it won't end there.</p><p>"I think that human societies have not really grasped what that means and that adaptation to sea level rise is going to be a long process and we are going to be doing it for hundreds of years," said Mottram, suggesting that we start thinking in terms of the lifetimes of cities (hundreds of years) rather than just human lifetimes.</p>
<h2>Protecting the Vulnerable<br></h2><p>Vladimir Romanovsky, a professor of geophysics at the University of Alaska Fairbanks' Permafrost Laboratory, said that while he thinks about how what happens in the Arctic will affect the rest of the world, his concerns are much more local.</p><p>"We should remember that there are still some people living in the Arctic," he said. Around <a href="https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/arctic-meteorology/arctic-people.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4 million people</a> in fact who would have to deal with the real-life consequences of solid ground <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-07557-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">thawing beneath their feet and houses</a>. "Changes in these local or regional kind of climates and environments, they impact these people and some of these impacts could be very severe."</p><p>Closer to the planet's other pole, Carolina Vera fears that existing inequalities will only be <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/climate-change-hit-poorest-countries-hardest-in-2019/a-56334708" target="_blank">exacerbated by climate change</a>.</p><p>"Climate change is already impacting the most vulnerable sectors of our planet," said Vera, who studies climate variability as a principal researcher for the National Council of Science of Argentina, a professor at the University of Buenos Aires and chief of staff for Argentina's Ministry of Science and Technology. Her work has led her to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-06856-6" target="_blank">incorporate local knowledge and data collection into studies</a>, involving communities that are balancing the problems of deforestation with their need to farm.</p>
<h2>Heat and New Extremes</h2><p>Perhaps not surprisingly, <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/climate-change-hottest-november-ever/a-55842640" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">global heating</a> is a key concern for many researchers, like Dim Coumou, who studies extreme weather at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.</p><p>Of most concern to him are heat and humidity extremes in the tropics – especially highly populated parts like West Africa, Pakistan and India – which will make it unbearable to be outside. When cooling down by sweating is no longer possible, people can't work outside and therefore can't grow food. The likely result being <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/pakistan-climate-migration-crisis/a-56126512" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mass migration</a>.</p><p>But it's not just the tropics.</p><p>Closely related to heat is the increase in extreme weather brought on by a warming climate. Coumou and his colleagues' research shows how <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/aop/JCLI-D-20-0311.1/JCLI-D-20-0311.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">changes to the jet stream will lead to more extreme weather in Europe</a>, including floods and droughts.</p><p>This increase in <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/climate-storms-cyclones-hurricanes-typhoons-explained/a-55521226" target="_blank">extreme weather</a> is climate scientist Abubakr Salih Babiker's biggest climate concern.</p><p>"A warmer atmosphere can hold more water in it and when it rains, it rains heavily leading to floods. A warmer ocean can lead to stronger tropical cyclones," said Babiker, who works for the East African Climate Center ICPAC in Nairobi. He explained that cyclones gain more energy from warmer water.</p><p>"We have seen evidence of all these events," he said. "The strongest tropical cyclones to impact the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, and Mozambique occurred in the past 20 years!"</p><p>And extreme weather events can bring further ecological disasters along with them, like <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/kenyas-farmers-face-threat-of-new-locust-swarms/a-56599904" target="_blank">swarms of locusts</a>, as Babiker and his colleagues have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0835-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">found in their research</a>.</p>
<h2>Science for Solutions</h2><p>Pests, drought and flooding are on Esther Ngumbi's mind too.</p><p>An entomologist and professor of African American studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, she said that what keeps her up at night is the thought: "How can my science truly help?"</p><p>Ngumbi's work on pest and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0929139316301111" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">drought-resistant crops</a> is driven by her concerns for vulnerable farmers who live in countries lacking social safety nets, where one season of crop devastation <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-changes-in-weather-patterns-could-lead-to-more-insect-invasions-131917" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">due to insects</a> can mean going hungry and being unable to pay for their children's education.</p><p>"That truly makes me wake up every day and go to the lab to understand how my research can contribute to solutions that we need," she said.</p><p>Natasha Picone – an urban climatologist at the National University of Central Buenos Aires – says it's the solutions that occupy her thoughts too.</p><p>"With the pandemic, I realized that we are not doing enough for changing our cities to be more livable," she said. Her research <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331300615_Improving_Urban_Planning_in_a_Middle_Temperate_Argentinian_City_Combining_Urban_Climate_Mapping_with_Local_Climate_Zones" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">informs urban planners</a> about phenomena such as the urban heat island effect, air pollution and urban run-off that can lead to flooding. "If we don't change the path now, it will be really difficult to go back."</p><p>Weighing on the mind of oceanographer Renata Hanae Nagai at the University of Parana in Brazil is her four-year-old nephew and what his life will look like in a warmer world, but he also gives her hope. During a recent trip to the beach to watch nesting turtles, he warned others to leave the turtles alone.</p><p>She sees this same care in her students – learning about problems and coming up with solutions.</p><p>"People are the solution," she said. "We try, even under the hardest conditions."</p>
<h2>'Scientists are Humans' Too</h2><p>Levke Caesar, whose <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/atlantic-conveyor-belt-has-slowed-15-per-cent-since-mid-twentieth-century" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">research recently made headlines</a>, said the most concerning thing for her is the people and organizations who <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/trump-climate-change-denial-emissions-environment-germany-fake-heartland-seibt/a-52688933" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">deny climate change</a>.</p><p>"For me, that's like morally totally unacceptable what they do – they lie," said the climate physicist from Maynooth University in Ireland, reflecting on encountering such people at public talks. "I mean, you can't argue with climate."</p><p>But this only pushes Caesar to better communicate what the science shows.</p><h2>They Worry About Us</h2><p>A common thread of this (rather unscientific) survey is that while we laypeople might be worrying about what the science says, climate scientists are often worrying about us.</p><p>"Scientists always think about what are the results of their studies, how are they important for, you know, for usual people, for normal people," the permafrost scientist told me. While doing his research, Romanovsky said he's always thinking about "how this could be used to make life of people easier or more predictable."</p>
<p><em>Reposted with permission from </em><em><a href="https://www.dw.com/en/solutions-climate-change-global-warming-permafrost-locusts-sea-level-extreme-weather-heat/a-57071503" target="_blank">Deutsche Welle</a>.</em></p>
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Sea Level Rise Is Killing Trees on the Atlantic Coast, Creating ‘Ghost Forests’ Visible From Space
06 April
Climate
Ghost forest panorama in coastal North Carolina. Emily Ury / CC BY-ND
By Emily Ury
Trekking out to my research sites near North Carolina's Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, I slog through knee-deep water on a section of trail that is completely submerged. Permanent flooding has become commonplace on this low-lying peninsula, nestled behind North Carolina's Outer Banks. The trees growing in the water are small and stunted. Many are dead.
<p>Throughout coastal North Carolina, evidence of forest die-off is everywhere. Nearly every roadside ditch I pass while driving around the region is lined with dead or dying trees.</p><p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uHGlqtEAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ecologist studying wetland response to sea level rise</a>, I know this flooding is evidence that climate change is altering landscapes along the Atlantic coast. It's emblematic of environmental changes that also threaten wildlife, ecosystems, and local farms and forestry businesses.</p><p>Like all living organisms, trees die. But what is happening here is not normal. Large patches of trees are dying simultaneously, and saplings aren't growing to take their place. And it's not just a local issue: Seawater is raising salt levels in coastal woodlands along the entire Atlantic Coastal Plain, from Maine to Florida. Huge swaths of contiguous forest are dying. They're now known in the scientific community as "ghost forests."</p>
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Deer photographed by a remote camera in a climate change-altered forest in North Carolina. Emily Ury / CC BY-ND
<h3>The Insidious Role of Salt</h3><p>Sea level rise <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise-and-implications-for-low-lying-islands-coasts-and-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">driven by climate change</a> is making wetlands wetter in many parts of the world. It's also making them saltier.</p><p>In 2016 I began working in a forested North Carolina wetland to study the effect of salt on its plants and soils. Every couple of months, I suit up in heavy rubber waders and a mesh shirt for protection from biting insects, and haul over 100 pounds of salt and other equipment out along the flooded trail to my research site. We are salting an area about the size of a tennis court, seeking to mimic the effects of sea level rise.</p><p>After two years of effort, the salt didn't seem to be affecting the plants or soil processes that we were monitoring. I realized that instead of waiting around for our experimental salt to slowly kill these trees, the question I needed to answer was how many trees had already died, and how much more wetland area was vulnerable. To find answers, I had to go to sites where the trees were already dead.</p>
<p>Rising seas are inundating North Carolina's coast, and saltwater is seeping into wetland soils. Salts move through groundwater during phases when freshwater is depleted, such as during droughts. Saltwater also moves through canals and ditches, penetrating inland with help from wind and high tides. Dead trees with pale trunks, devoid of leaves and limbs, are a telltale sign of high salt levels in the soil. A 2019 report called them "<a href="https://www.sciencefriday.com/videos/the-seeds-of-ghost-forests/" target="_blank">wooden tombstones</a>."</p><p>As the trees die, more salt-tolerant shrubs and grasses move in to take their place. In a newly published study that I coauthored with <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/bernhardt" target="_blank">Emily Bernhardt</a> and <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/wright" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Justin Wright</a> at Duke University and <a href="https://evsc.as.virginia.edu/people/profile/xiyang" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Xi Yang</a> at the University of Virginia, we show that in North Carolina <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2339" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">this shift has been dramatic</a>.</p><p>The state's coastal region has suffered a rapid and widespread loss of forest, with cascading impacts on wildlife, including the endangered <a href="https://www.fws.gov/southeast/wildlife/mammals/red-wolf/#:%7E:text=Today%2C%20only%20about%2020%20red,facilities%20throughout%20the%20United%20States." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">red wolf</a> and <a href="https://www.fws.gov/rcwrecovery/files/rcwoodpecker.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">red-cockaded woodpecker</a>. Wetland forests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aba136" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sequester and store large quantities of carbon</a>, so forest die-offs also contribute to further climate change.</p>
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Researcher Emily Ury measuring soil salinity in a ghost forest. Emily Bernhardt / CC BY-ND
<h3>Assessing Ghost Forests From Space</h3><p>To understand where and how quickly these forests are changing, I needed a bird's-eye perspective. This perspective comes from satellites like <a href="https://eospso.nasa.gov/mission-category/3" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NASA's Earth Observing System</a>, which are important sources of scientific and environmental data.</p><p>Since 1972, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/nli/landsat" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Landsat satellites</a>, jointly operated by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey, have captured <a href="https://eros.usgs.gov/image-gallery/image-of-the-week/landsat-archive-hits-nine-million-scenes" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">continuous images of Earth's land surface</a> that reveal both natural and human-induced change. We used Landsat images to quantify changes in coastal vegetation since 1984 and referenced high-resolution Google Earth images to spot ghost forests. Computer analysis helped identify similar patches of dead trees across the entire landscape.</p>
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A 2016 Landsat8 image of the Albemarle Pamlico Peninsula in coastal North Carolina. USGS
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Google Earth image of a healthy forest on the right and a ghost forest with many dead trees on the left. Emily Ury
<p>The results were shocking. We found that more than 10% of forested wetland within the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge was lost over the past 35 years. This is federally protected land, with no other human activity that could be killing off the forest.</p><p><a href="https://coast.noaa.gov/slr/" target="_blank">Rapid sea level rise</a> seems to be outpacing the ability of these forests to adapt to wetter, saltier conditions. <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-how-climate-change-affects-extreme-weather-around-the-world" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Extreme weather events</a>, fueled by climate change, are causing further damage from heavy storms, more frequent hurricanes and drought.</p><p>We found that the largest annual loss of forest cover within our study area occurred in 2012, following a period of extreme drought, forest fires and storm surges from <a href="https://www.weather.gov/mhx/Aug272011EventReview" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hurricane Irene</a> in August 2011. This triple whammy seemed to have been a tipping point that caused mass tree die-offs across the region.</p>
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Habitat maps we created for the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge showing the change over time and the prevalence of ghost forests. Ury et al, 2021., CC BY-ND
<h3>Should Scientists Fight the Transition or Assist It?</h3><p>As global sea levels continue to rise, coastal woodlands from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/8357/katrina-damage-to-gulf-coast-forests" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gulf of Mexico</a> to <a href="https://gwtoday.gwu.edu/chesapeake-bay-ghost-forests-highlight-wetland-transformation#:%7E:text=In%20the%20Chesapeake%20Bay%20region,lapping%20at%20their%20bleached%20trunks." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Chesapeake Bay</a> and elsewhere around the world could also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ehs2.1258" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">suffer major losses</a> from saltwater intrusion. Many people in the conservation community are rethinking land management approaches and exploring more <a href="https://www.landscapearchitecture.nz/landscape-architecture-aotearoa/2018/9/7/adaptive-planning-for-coastal-climate-change" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">adaptive strategies</a>, such as facilitating forests' inevitable transition into salt marshes or other coastal landscapes.</p><p>For example, in North Carolina <a href="https://coastalresilience.org/project/north-carolina/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Nature Conservancy</a> is carrying out some adaptive management approaches, such as <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/living-shoreline.html#:%7E:text=Living%20shorelines%20are%20a%20green,sills%20to%20stabilize%20the%20shoreline." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">creating "living shorelines</a>" made from plants, sand and rock to provide natural buffering from storm surges.</p><p>A more radical approach would be to introduce marsh plants that are salt-tolerant in threatened zones. This strategy is controversial because it goes against the desire to try to preserve ecosystems exactly as they are.<br></p><p>But if forests are dying anyway, having a salt marsh is a far better outcome than allowing a wetland to be reduced to open water. While open water isn't inherently bad, it does not provide the many ecological benefits that a salt marsh affords. Proactive management may prolong the lifespan of coastal wetlands, enabling them to continue storing carbon, providing habitat, enhancing water quality and protecting productive farm and forest land in coastal regions.</p>
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<em>Emily Ury is a Ph.D. candidate in Duke University's Program in Ecology.</em>
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<em>Disclosure statement: Emily Ury received funding from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the North Carolina Sea Grant. Additional support for this project came from the National Science Foundation.</em>
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<em>Reposted with permission from <a href="https://theconversation.com/sea-level-rise-is-killing-trees-along-the-atlantic-coast-creating-ghost-forests-that-are-visible-from-space-147971" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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