A makeshift refugee camp about five or six months after the collapse of the Casitas Volcano (in background) in the wake of Hurricane Mitch. This photo was taken near Posoltega, Nicaragua, early April, 1999. Bob Ramsak / piran café / Flickr
Clouds of dust rose behind the wheels of the pickup truck as we hurtled over the back road in Palo Verde, El Salvador. When we got to the stone-paved part of the road, the driver slowed as the truck heaved up and down with the uneven terrain. Riding in the back bed of the truck, Ruben (not his real name) and I talked while we held on tight, sitting on sacks of dried beans that he was taking to market.
<p>"It doesn't come out right," he said, "it just doesn't pay anymore to work the land. I take out a loan for seed, and then I can't count on making it back to pay off my debt."</p><p>Ruben told me then, for the first time, that he planned to save up his money to migrate out of El Salvador. His story is playing out across Central America among many migrants and would-be migrants.</p><p>When I spoke with Ruben, it was 2017, nearly 20 years after I had first spent time in his community, a coffee cooperative in El Salvador's central highlands founded in the 1990s. Over those two decades, the cooperative's hopes and dreams of a sustainable livelihood producing coffee for a global market have been dashed.</p><p>Rising global temperatures, the spread of crop disease and <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/extreme-weather">extreme weather</a> events have made coffee harvests <a href="https://www.nri.org/publications/working-paper-series/4-coffee-and-climate-change/file" target="_blank">unreliable</a> in places like El Salvador. On top of that, <a href="https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/market-shocks-and-climate-variability-the-coffee-crisis-in-mexico" target="_blank">market prices</a> are unpredictable.</p><p>In the back of the pickup truck that day, we talked about gangs too. There was increasing criminal activity in the town nearby, and some young people in the town were being harassed and recruited. But this was a relatively new issue for the community, layered on top of the persistent problem of the ecological crisis.</p><p>As a cultural anthropologist who studies factors of displacement in El Salvador, I see how Ruben's situation is reflective of a much broader global phenomenon of people leaving their homes, directly or indirectly due to climate change and the degradation of their local ecosystem. And as environmental conditions are projected to get worse under current trends, this raises unresolved legal questions on the status and security of people like Ruben and his family.</p>
Land and Livelihood
<p>Migration from Central America has gotten a lot of <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2017/12/07/rise-in-u-s-immigrants-from-el-salvador-guatemala-and-honduras-outpaces-growth-from-elsewhere/" target="_blank">attention</a> these days, including the famous migrant <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/root-migration-climate-change-caravan-central-america" target="_blank">caravans</a>. But much of it focuses on the way migrants from this region — especially El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Honduras — are driven out by <a href="https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/33/3/34/2797909" target="_blank">gang violence</a>, <a href="https://theglobalamericans.org/2019/04/the-cost-of-systemic-corruption-in-honduras-migration-north/" target="_blank">corruption</a> and <a href="https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/nicaragua" target="_blank">political upheaval</a>.</p><p>These factors are <a href="http://www.internal-displacement.org/publications/understanding-and-estimating-displacement-in-the-northern-triangle-of-central-america" target="_blank">important</a> and require a response from the <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/claims-from-central-america.html" target="_blank">international community</a>. But displacement <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/08072019/climate-change-migration-honduras-drought-crop-failure-farming-deforestation-guatemala-trump" target="_blank">driven by climate change</a> is significant too.</p><p>The link between environmental instability and emigration from the region became apparent in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Earthquakes and hurricanes, especially <a href="http://hurricanescience.net/history/storms/1990s/mitch/" target="_blank">Hurricane Mitch</a> in 1998 and its aftermath, were ravaging parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador.</p><p>Many people from El Salvador and Honduras lived in the U.S. at the time, and the Bush administration granted them <a href="https://cmsny.org/publications/jmhs-tps-elsalvador-honduras-haiti/" target="_blank">Temporary Protected Status</a>. In this way, the government of the United States recognized the inhumanity of sending people back to places struggling with ecological disaster.</p><p>In the years since those events, both rapid-onset and long-term environmental crises continue to <a href="http://www.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/20181213-slow-onset-intro.pdf" target="_blank">displace people</a> from their homes worldwide. Studies show that displacement often happens indirectly through the impact of climate change on <a href="https://www.nri.org/publications/working-paper-series/4-coffee-and-climate-change/file" target="_blank">agricultural livelihoods</a>, with some areas pressured more than others. But some are more dramatic: Both Honduras and Nicaragua are among the top 10 countries <a href="https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202019_2.pdf" target="_blank">most impacted</a> by extreme weather events between 1998 and 2017.</p><p>Since 2014, a serious drought has decimated crops in Central America's so-called <a href="http://www.fao.org/emergencies/crisis/dry-corridor/en/" target="_blank">dry corridor</a> along the Pacific Coast. By impacting smallholder farmers in <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-elsalvador-drought/salvadoran-farmers-lament-brutal-drought-hope-for-recovery-idUSKBN1KG2RE" target="_blank">El Salvador</a>, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/central-america-drying-farmers-face-choice-pray-rain-or-leave-n1027346" target="_blank">Guatemala and Honduras</a>, this drought helps to drive <a href="https://econpapers.repec.org/article/sprclimat/v_3a140_3ay_3a2017_3ai_3a3_3ad_3a10.1007_5fs10584-016-1863-2.htm" target="_blank">higher levels</a> of migration from the region.</p><p>Coffee production, a critical support for these countries' economies, is especially vulnerable and sensitive to weather variations. A recent <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coffee-rust-battle-intensifies/" target="_blank">outbreak of coffee leaf rust</a> in the region was likely <a href="https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/may-19-2014-usaid-texas-am-invest-5-million-combat-coffee-rust-crisis" target="_blank">exacerbated</a> by climate change.</p><p>The <a href="https://time.com/5346110/guatemala-coffee-escape-migration/" target="_blank">fallout</a> from that plague combines with the recent <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralamerica-immigration-coffee/coffee-slump-reaps-bitter-harvest-for-central-american-migrants-idUSKCN1TS2QB" target="_blank">collapse</a> in global coffee prices to spur desperate farmers to give up.</p>Compounding Factor
<p><br>These trends have led experts at the World Bank to claim that around <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/983921522304806221/pdf/124724-BRI-PUBLIC-NEWSERIES-Groundswell-note-PN3.pdf" target="_blank">2 million people</a> are likely to be <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/climate-refugee" target="_self">displaced</a> from Central America by the year 2050 due to factors related to climate change. Of course, it's hard to tease out the "push factor" of <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/climate-change" target="_self">climate change</a> from all of the other reasons that people need to leave. And unfortunately, these phenomena interact and tend to exacerbate each other.</p><p>Scholars are working hard to assess the scale of the problem and study ways people can <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0088463" target="_blank">adapt</a>. But the problem is challenging. The number of displaced could be even higher — up to almost <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/983921522304806221/pdf/124724-BRI-PUBLIC-NEWSERIES-Groundswell-note-PN3.pdf" target="_blank">4 million</a> — if regional development does not shift to more climate-friendly and <a href="https://ccafs.cgiar.org/news/central-americas-climate-smart-agriculture-strategy-contains-key-recommendations-ccafs-future#.XWUp8pNKgWo" target="_blank">inclusive models</a> of agriculture.</p><p>People who emigrate from Central America may not always fully realize the role climate change plays in their movement, or think of it as the final trigger given all the other reasons they have to flee. But they know that the crops fail too often, and it's harder to get clean water than it used to be.</p>Seeking a Protected Status
<p>Ruben recently contacted me to ask for a reference to a good immigration lawyer. He and his daughter are now in the United States and have an upcoming hearing to determine their status.</p><p>Just as he predicted a few years ago, Ruben couldn't make a living in El Salvador. But he may find it hard to live in the U.S. too, given the mismatch between refugee law and current factors causing displacement.</p><p>For several years now, scholars and legal advocates have been asking <a href="https://www.fmreview.org/peopletrafficking/romer" target="_blank">how to respond</a> to people displaced by environmental conditions. Do <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328261364_Possible_Framework_for_Climate_Change_IDP's_Disaster_and_Development_Induced_Displacement_and_Resettlement_Models_and_their_Integration" target="_blank">existing models</a> of humanitarian response and resettlement work for this new population? Could such persons be recognized as in need of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2008.00290.x" target="_blank">protection under international law</a>, similar to political refugees?</p><p>Among the most complicated political questions is who should step up to deal with the harms of climate change, considering that wealthier countries pollute more but are often shielded from the worst effects. How can <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/nzjel20&id=112&men_tab=srchresults" target="_blank">responsibility be assigned</a>, and more importantly, what is to be done?</p><p>In the absence of coordinated action on the part of the global community to mitigate ecological instability and recognize the plight of displaced people, there's a risk of what some have called "<a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/06/1041261" target="_blank">climate apartheid</a>." In this scenario — climate change combined with closed borders and few migration pathways — millions of people would be forced to choose between increasingly insecure livelihoods and the perils of unauthorized migration.<em> </em></p><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/miranda-cady-hallett-343720" target="_blank">Miranda Cady Hallett</a> is an Associate Professor of Anthropology and Human Rights Center Research Fellow at University of Dayton. </em></p><p><em>Reposted with permission from our media associate </em><u><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-is-driving-emigration-from-central-america-121525" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em></u></p>From Your Site Articles
- Climate Change Is Already Driving Mass Migration Around the Globe ›
- The Climate Implications of the Migrant Caravan - EcoWatch ›
- Why the Migrant Caravan Story Is a Climate Change Story - EcoWatch ›
- Tropical Storm Amanda Kills 14 in El Salvador, Forces 4,200 to Evacuate - EcoWatch ›
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What’s the Scoop on Kids and Dirt? Get Enough to Help, but Not Enough to Hurt, a Doctor Advises
03 August 2019
Health + Wellness
3sbworld / iStock / Getty Images Plus
By Cosby Stone
Whenever I am asked what I do for a living, the phrase "I'm an allergist" is almost immediately followed by "So, where are all of these allergies coming from?"
<p>Maybe I'll get sick of that question some day, but I haven't yet. As a clinician and researcher on allergies and public health, I first explain that when a society begins to become aware of a disease, the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1734702" target="_blank">reported prevalence will go up</a>. This is understandable. People who have medically unexplained symptoms wonder "Could I have this allergy that's being talked about?" and try on the diagnosis. Sometimes an allergy really is at the root of their problems, and sometimes it's not.</p><p>For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674914006721" target="_blank">at least 50% of patient-reported</a> food allergies are only presumed. They have not been evaluated thoroughly enough to know for sure whether the patient is allergic. Research also demonstrates that, in many cases, we presume wrongly. The symptoms fit better with an intolerance than an allergy, or the events were coincidental. While 11 to 12% of patients currently report a food allergy, only about 5% of adults and 8% of children likely <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674914006721" target="_blank">have true food allergy</a>. Around 8% of patients report a penicillin allergy, but fewer than <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/409362" target="_blank">five out of 100 patients</a> who report a penicillin allergy can be shown to be allergic when tested.</p><p>Many people next ask whether allergies are genetic, but allergies in one's family appear to explain only <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749379702005895" target="_blank">10 to 40% of a person's</a> increased risk for allergies. Allergic diseases are also increasing at rates that are inconsistent with genetic diseases.</p><p>More interesting is that there appear to have been different waves in which <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674915005849" target="_blank">allergies appeared in historical records</a>. Hay fever (environmental allergies) first appeared in the 1800s, followed by more recent increases in asthma and food allergy.</p>
<h2>What's Changed, and What's Dirt Got to Do With It?</h2><p>So if genetics don't fully explain the rise in allergy, what does? Some of the most consistent risk factors for allergic diseases include <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31149702" target="_blank">overuse of antibiotics</a>; <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29733679" target="_blank">acute viral respiratory infections</a> in childhood; birth by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30322585" target="_blank">cesarean section</a>; nutritional disorders; second-hand smoke exposure; pollution; and the <a href="https://clintransmed.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40169-018-0195-4" target="_blank">environment where you grew up</a>.<br></p><p>To organize these risks into categories, two conceptual hypotheses currently seem to be of value — the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674903023704" target="_blank">barrier hypothesis</a> and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838109/" target="_blank">hygiene hypothesis</a>.</p><p>Imagine that your immune system is an army behind a castle wall. The castle wall is your skin, your respiratory tract and your gastrointestinal tract. The army is composed of your white blood cells in addition to other cells in the body that can activate these gung-ho Marines to defend you.</p><p>The central tenet of the barrier hypothesis is that when our skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract are chronically injured, your castle wall is broken down. The soldiers of the immune system are activated to aggressive defense, yet allergens can penetrate, and people can begin to experience allergic inflammation in those areas. This has been most clearly demonstrated with the allergic skin disease known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674903023704" target="_blank">eczema</a>.</p><p>Research has also shown that activities in these barrier sites can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674916304985" target="_blank">flavor the immune response and profile</a> of a person, especially in childhood. Many risk factors for allergic disease, such as viral infections, nutritional disorders, smoke exposure and pollution, affect the health of our barriers. Studies have indicated that up to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674914011609" target="_blank">50% of childhood eczema,</a> a barrier disease, can be prevented simply by applying protective emollients like petroleum jelly to protect babies' skin when we bathe them.</p>
<h2>The Role of Hygiene in Allergy</h2><p>The central tenet of the hygiene hypothesis is that we have gone a bit too far and inadvertently killed off our good bacteria along with the bad. As our society progressed from one that was chronically burdened with infectious diseases caused by poor sanitation, the thinking goes, we reduced our exposures to the things that gave our immune system an appropriate training and tolerance. Historically, our totally rational fear of dying from a cholera epidemic led to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091674915005849" target="_blank">sewage and water management</a>, but may have kicked off the allergy epidemic.<br></p><p>Our overuse of <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/antibiotics" rel="noopener noreferrer">antibiotics</a> and C-sections affects the set of organisms called the <a href="https://clintransmed.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40169-018-0195-4" target="_blank">microbiome</a> that an infant is exposed to growing up. Both have been shown to increase the risk of childhood allergic diseases.</p><p>Growing up in a rural area exposed to farm animals appears to confer a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02397.x" target="_blank">decreased risk of allergies and asthma</a> for your entire lifetime, even among <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1508749" target="_blank">genetically similar populations</a>. Studies in mice have shown that inhaling certain molecules from soil-dwelling bacteria can set off a beneficial cascade promoting an immune system which focuses more on threats rather than nonthreats, such as <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/349/6252/1106.abstract" target="_blank">allergens</a>.</p><p>Vaccinations appear to be a crucial exception to the rule of the <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.94.6.985" target="_blank">hygiene hypothesis</a>. They confer protection against diseases without any associated increase in the risk of allergic disease, likely because they, unlike antibiotics, are very specifically targeting only the worst disease-causing organisms.</p>
<h2>Our Current Prescription</h2><p>The data currently paints a picture that we might prevent allergies in the future by protecting our barriers and introducing the right <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa1414850" target="_blank">tolerizing exposures at the right time</a>, such as early introduction of peanuts. However, I can't currently tell you how much dirt or what kinds of bacteria your child needs to safely experience while growing up. It's too soon for that, but many wonderful scientists around the world are working on these questions, thanks to support from a variety of governments and foundations.</p><p>Until then, I will share with you the broad-brush advice that I currently give my friends and patients.</p><ul><li>Let your kids play outside, get dirty, try new foods and be exposed to a variety of things. Advocate for them to have outside recess time in school as much as possible.</li><li>Use plain soap and water; you don't need to sanitize everything.</li><li>Talk to your doctor about watchful waiting to respond to an illness, rather than take antibiotics.</li><li>Be judicious about what you put on your body's barriers, and become an advocate for clean air, clean water and a clean environment for everyone.</li><li>Get all of your routine vaccinations. The healthiest children in the U.S. are the ones who are fully vaccinated.</li></ul>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">'The Dirt Cure': Why Human Health Depends on Soil Health <a href="https://t.co/5KewSKwfcy">https://t.co/5KewSKwfcy</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/OrganicConsumer?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@OrganicConsumer</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/regeneration_in?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@regeneration_in</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/kissthegroundCA?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@kissthegroundCA</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/SoilHealth?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#SoilHealth</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/969258905451757568?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">March 1, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p><em>Cosby Stone is an instructor in allergy/immunology at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt University.<br/></em><em>Disclosure statement: </em><em>Cosby Stone, Jr. MD, MPH currently receives funding from K12HS026395-0 via the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and has previously received funding from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences for his research in allergy.</em></p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-scoop-on-kids-and-dirt-get-enough-to-help-but-not-enough-to-hurt-a-doctor-advises-121029" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
</p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121029/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
- Soil Health: The Next Agricultural Revolution - EcoWatch ›
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Yes, Flesh-Eating Bacteria Are in the Warm Coastal Waters – but It Doesn’t Mean You’ll Get Sick
31 July 2019
Insights + Opinion
Cover all open wounds with waterproof bandages before swimming in the ocean. lzf / iStock / Getty Images Plus
By Brian Labus
Like humans, many bacteria like to spend time at the beach. The so-called flesh-eating bacteria, Vibrio vulnificus, don't just like the beach; they need it, and rely on sea salt for survival. And as with human beachgoers, the warmer the water, the more of them there are.
<p><em>V. vulnificus</em> is most commonly found in the warm waters of the states bordering the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico but can also be found along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. As <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/oceans">ocean</a> temperatures rise, <a href="https://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/2736101/vibrio-vulnificus-infections-from-previously-nonendemic-area" target="_blank">it will spread with those warming waters to new ocean habitats</a> where <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC242103/" target="_blank">colder waters</a> previously kept it in check. We have seen <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa051594" target="_blank">outbreaks of disease from similar types of <em>Vibrio</em> related to rising ocean temperatures as far north as Alaska</a>.</p><p>Most cases of infection occur between May and October, when coastal waters are warmest. This could change, however, as summer weather starts earlier and lasts longer.</p><p>I am an infectious disease epidemiologist interested in tracking disease, investigating outbreaks and food safety. The first large outbreak I worked on in Las Vegas was caused by contaminated oysters, and it made me realize just how easily <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/seafood">food from the ocean</a> can show up in the desert and make people sick if it isn't harvested, handled and prepared properly.</p>
<h2>We Only Hear About the Worst Cases</h2><p>News reports tend to focus on people <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/man-dies-from-flesh-eating-bacteria-48-hours-after-florida-beach-trip-family-says-2019-07-13/" target="_blank">dying</a> or <a href="https://nypost.com/2019/07/20/bronx-girl-who-lost-arm-to-nightmare-flesh-eating-disease-on-the-mend/" target="_blank">losing limbs</a> from the "flesh eating" bacteria. It's not front-page news when someone has a mild skin infection or eats a bad oyster and spends a couple days in the bathroom. We don't often identify the most mild illnesses because people typically don't seek medical care for them.</p><p>Even so, <em>V. vulnificus</em> infections are rare. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/vibriovulnificus.html" target="_blank">205 infections occur each year</a>, of which <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nationalsurveillance/pdfs/covis-annual-summary-2014-508c.pdf" target="_blank">124 were reported </a>in 2014, including 21 deaths. To put this in some perspective, over <a href="https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812246" target="_blank">32,000 people died that year</a> in motor vehicle crashes.</p><p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.VE-0001-2014" target="_blank">Most cases</a> tend to be males over 40 years of age and nearly all of them have some sort of underlying chronic health condition, such as liver or kidney disease, alcoholism or diabetes.</p><p>Even for high-risk people, simply swimming alongside the bacteria is not enough to make you sick. The bacteria must find a way to get into your body to multiply and cause damage.</p><p>For some people, this involves eating food contaminated by the bacteria – typically raw oysters. Oysters eat by filtering out small particles in the water, including bacteria, so they can contain much higher concentrations of <em>Vibrio</em> than the ocean itself. When someone eats a raw or undercooked oyster, the bacteria can multiply in the gastrointestinal tract and cause nausea and abdominal pain.</p><p>It can also lead to a life-threatening infection, as bacteria can move from the intestines into the bloodstream and cause an infection throughout the body. Because it spreads so quickly, it can overwhelm the body before the immune system has a chance to stop the infection. Systemic infections are treatable with antibiotics, but it is important that treatment start quickly, as the <a href="https://www.aafp.org/afp/2007/0815/p539.pdf" target="_blank">death rate can be over 50%</a>.</p><p>For other people, <em>V. vulnificus</em> can enter through broken skin such as cuts, burns or wounds. Bacteria can multiply under the skin and cause a life-threatening illness commonly known as flesh-eating disease, or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-public/necrotizing-fasciitis.html" target="_blank">necrotizing fasciitis</a>, which can appear suddenly and spread quickly. The infections typically cause a fever and cause the skin to become, red, swollen and painful at the site of infection. The bacteria do not actually "eat" the flesh, but this is what the disease can look like. Between the growth of the bacteria, the production of toxins, and collateral damage from an overwhelming immune system response, large areas of tissue under the skin can die. The infection is treatable with antibiotics, but it is important that treatment is swift.</p>
<h2>So What Can We Do About It?</h2><p>First, avoid eating raw shellfish, especially if you have a weakened immune system due to liver or kidney disease; are on medications, such as steroids, that suppress the immune system; or are diabetic or have cancer. While raw oysters are a popular delicacy, eating any uncooked animal product carries a risk of disease. If you are preparing oysters at home, handle them just as you would any other raw meat. But keep in mind that lemon juice, hot sauce or alcohol do not kill the bacteria and will not protect you if the shellfish is contaminated and that there is no way to identify the contamination by sight or taste.</p><p>Another precaution is not to swim with open cuts or wounds, as this provides a direct path for bacteria to enter your body. Avoid the ocean until you heal or cover the wounds with waterproof bandages.</p><p>If you are at high risk for infection because a weakened immune system, wear clothing and shoes that will protect you from cuts and scrapes while swimming.</p><p>Finally, if you do wind up with a skin infection after swimming in the ocean or gastroenteritis after eating raw shellfish, tell your doctor, as prompt identification and treatment is necessary for this rare illness.</p><p>Remember, you don't need to skip the beach. Just use some common sense measures to protect yourself from infection by <em>V. vulnificus</em>, especially if you are at high risk.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Flesh-Eating Bacteria Infects Three as Experts Warn Warming Oceans Could Make It More Common <a href="https://t.co/jsdOZPPsYQ">https://t.co/jsdOZPPsYQ</a></p>— Enviro Voter Project (@Enviro_Voter) <a href="https://twitter.com/Enviro_Voter/status/1148971238687203328?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">July 10, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p><em>Brian Labus is an assistant professor of epidemiology and biostatistics at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.<br/>Disclosure statement: </em><em>Brian Labus received past funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for disease surveillance activities while working at the local health department, including the subject of this article.</em></p><p><em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-flesh-eating-bacteria-are-in-the-warm-coastal-waters-but-it-doesnt-mean-youll-get-sick-121081" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em></p>From Your Site Articles
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It's OK, I'm a filter feeder: Whale shark off Indonesia. Marcel Ekkel, /Flickr / CC BY
By Gavin Naylor
Sharks elicit outsized fear, even though the risk of a shark bite is infinitesimally small. As a marine biologist and director of the Florida Program for Shark Research, I oversee the International Shark Attack File — a global record of reported shark bites that has been maintained continuously since 1958.
<p>We are careful to emphasize how rare shark bites are: You are 30 times more likely to be struck by lightning than be bitten by a shark. You are more likely to die while <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-people-risk-their-lives-for-the-perfect-selfie-55937" target="_blank">taking a selfie</a>, or be <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/odds/compare-risk/nyc-biting-injuries/" target="_blank">bitten by a New Yorker</a>. In anticipation of the anxiety that's typically generated by the Discovery Channel's <a href="https://www.discovery.com/shark-week/2019/s/shark-week-announcement-2019" target="_blank">Shark Week programming</a>, here are a few things about sharks that are often overlooked.</p>
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font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:550; line-height:18px;"> View this post on Instagram</div></div><div style="padding: 12.5% 0;"></div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: row; margin-bottom: 14px; align-items: center;"><div> <div style="background-color: #F4F4F4; border-radius: 50%; height: 12.5px; width: 12.5px; transform: translateX(0px) translateY(7px);"></div> <div style="background-color: #F4F4F4; height: 12.5px; transform: rotate(-45deg) translateX(3px) translateY(1px); width: 12.5px; flex-grow: 0; margin-right: 14px; margin-left: 2px;"></div> <div style="background-color: #F4F4F4; border-radius: 50%; height: 12.5px; width: 12.5px; transform: translateX(9px) translateY(-18px);"></div></div><div style="margin-left: 8px;"> <div style=" background-color: #F4F4F4; border-radius: 50%; flex-grow: 0; height: 20px; width: 20px;"></div> <div style=" width: 0; height: 0; border-top: 2px solid transparent; border-left: 6px solid #f4f4f4; border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; 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overflow:hidden; padding:8px 0 7px; text-align:center; text-overflow:ellipsis; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Bz_foeEj4D0/" style=" color:#c9c8cd; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none;" target="_blank">A post shared by Atlantic White Shark Cons. (@a_whiteshark)</a> on <time style=" font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; line-height:17px;" datetime="2019-07-16T21:05:54+00:00">Jul 16, 2019 at 2:05pm PDT</time></p></div></blockquote> <script async src="//www.instagram.com/embed.js"></script>
<h2>A Big, Diverse Family</h2><p>Not all sharks are the same. Only a dozen or so of the roughly 520 shark species pose any risk to people. Even the three species that account for almost all shark bite fatalities — the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/carcharodon-carcharias/" target="_blank">white shark</a> (<em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>), <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/galeocerdo-cuvier/" target="_blank">tiger shark</a> (<em>Galeocerdo cuvier</em>) and <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/carcharhinus-leucas/" target="_blank">bull shark</a> (<em>Carcharhinus leucas</em>) — are behaviorally and evolutionarily very different from one another.</p><p>The tiger shark and bull shark are genetically as different from each other as a dog is from a rabbit. And both of these species are about as different from a white shark as a dog is from a kangaroo. The evolutionary lineages leading to the two groups split 170 million years ago, during the age of dinosaurs and before the origin of birds, and <a href="https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Human-Biology/section/7.2/" target="_blank">110 million years before the origin of primates</a>.</p>
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<p>Yet many people assume all sharks are alike and equally likely to bite humans. Consider the term "shark attack," which is scientifically equivalent to "mammal attack." Nobody would equate dog bites with hamster bites, but this is exactly what we do when it comes to sharks.</p><p>So, when a reporter calls me about a fatality caused by a white shark off Cape Cod and asks my advice for beachgoers in North Carolina, it's essentially like asking, "A man was killed by a dog on Cape Cod. What precautions should people take when dealing with kangaroos in North Carolina?"</p><h2>Know Your Species</h2><p>Understanding local species' behavior and life habits is one of the best ways to stay safe. For example, almost all shark bites that occur off Cape Cod are by white sharks, which are a large, primarily cold-water species that spend most of their time in isolation feeding on fishes. But they also aggregate near seal colonies that provide a reliable food source at certain times of the year.</p><p>Shark bites in the Carolinas are by warm-water species like bull sharks, tiger sharks and <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/carcharhinus-limbatus/" target="_blank">blacktips</a> (<em>Carcharhinus limbatus</em>). Each species is associated with particular habitats and dietary preferences.</p><p>Blacktips, which we suspect are responsible for most relatively minor bites on humans in the southeastern U.S., feed on schooling bait fishes like menhaden. In contrast, bull sharks are equally at home in fresh water and salt water, and are often found near estuaries. Their bites are more severe than those of blacktips, as they are larger, more powerful, bolder and more tenacious. Several fatalities have been ascribed to bull sharks.</p><p>Tiger sharks are also large, and are responsible for a significant fraction of fatalities, particularly off the coast of volcanic islands like Hawaii and Reunion. They are tropical animals that often venture into shallow water frequented by swimmers and surfers.</p>
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<h2>Humans Are Not Targets</h2><p>Sharks do not "hunt" humans. Data from the International Shark Attack File compiled over the past 60 years show a tight association between shark bites and the number of people in the water. In other words, shark bites are a simple function of the probability of encountering a shark.</p><p>This underscores the fact that shark bites are almost always cases of mistaken identity. If sharks actively hunted people, there would be many more bites, since humans make very easy targets when they swim in sharks' natural habitats.</p><p>Local conditions can also affect the risk of an attack. Encounters are more likely when sharks venture closer to shore, into areas where people are swimming. They may do this because they are following bait fishes or seals upon which they prey.</p><p>This means we can use environmental variables such as temperature, tide or weather conditions to better predict movement of bait fish toward the shoreline, which in turn will predict the presence of sharks. Over the next few years, the Florida Program for Shark Research will work with colleagues at other universities to monitor onshore and offshore movements of tagged sharks and their association with environmental variables so that we can improve our understanding of what conditions bring sharks close to shore.</p><h2>More to Know</h2><p>There still is much to learn about sharks, especially the 500 or so species that have never been implicated in a bite on humans. One example is the tiny <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/one-worlds-rarest-sharks-also-one-most-adorable-325280" target="_blank">deep sea pocket shark</a>, which has a strange pouch behind its pectoral fins.</p><p>Only two specimens of this type of shark have ever been caught — one off the coast of Chile 30 years ago, and another more recently in the Gulf of Mexico. We're not sure about the function of the pouch, but suspect it stores luminous fluid that is released to distract would-be predators — much as its close relative, the <a href="https://sharkdevocean.wordpress.com/2015/04/23/second-ever-pocket-shark-discovered-in-gulf-of-mexico/" target="_blank">tail light shark</a>, releases luminous fluid from a gland on its underside near its vent.</p>
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<p>Sharks range in form from the bizarre <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/mitsukurina-owstoni/" target="_blank">goblin shark</a> (<em>Mitsukurina owstoni</em>), most commonly encountered in Japan, to the gentle filter-feeding <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/rhincodon-typus/" target="_blank">whale shark</a> (<em>Rhincodon typus</em>). Although whale sharks are the largest fishes in the world, we have yet to locate their nursery grounds, which are likely teeming with thousands of <a href="https://www.earthtouchnews.com/oceans/sharks/baby-whale-shark-rescued-from-gillnet-in-india-video/" target="_blank">foot-long pups</a>. Some deepwater sharks are primarily known from submersibles, such as the giant <a href="https://twitter.com/gavinnaylor/status/1146144452681113601" target="_blank">sixgill shark</a>, which feeds mainly on carrion but probably also preys on other animals in the deep sea.</p><p>Sharks seem familiar to almost all of us, but we know precious little about them. Our current understanding of their biology barely scratches the surface. The little we do know suggests they are profoundly different from other vertebrate animals. They've had 400 million years of independent evolution to adapt to their environments, and it's reasonable to expect they may be hiding more than a few tricks up their gills.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">ROV FOOTAGE HELPS SCIENTISTS DISCOVER SHARKS DEPOSITING EGGS ON CORAL SKELETONS - RARE SHARK NURSERY IN IRISH WATERS <a href="https://twitter.com/moesgoi?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@moesgoi</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/MoesNiot?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@MoesNiot</a> <a href="https://t.co/hOuBDRUxy3">https://t.co/hOuBDRUxy3</a></p>— National Centre for Coastal Research (@CentreCoastal) <a href="https://twitter.com/CentreCoastal/status/1061862781241049088?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">November 12, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em>Gavin Naylor is the d</em><em>irector of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the University of Florida.<br/>
</em><em>Disclosure statement: Gavin Naylor receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Lenfest Ocean Program.</em>
</p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/shark-week-looms-but-dont-panic-120939" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
</p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120939/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
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Micro-Naps for Plants: Flicking the Lights on and off Can Save Energy Without Hurting Indoor Agriculture Harvests
23 July 2019
Insights + Opinion
Modern agricultural greenhouses in the Netherlands use LED lights to support plant growth. GAPS / iStock / Getty Images Plus
By Kevin M. Folta
A nighttime arrival at Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport flies you over the bright pink glow of vegetable production greenhouses. Growing crops under artificial light is gaining momentum, particularly in regions where produce prices can be high during seasons when sunlight is sparse.
<p><a href="https://www.wur.nl/en/Dossiers/file/Vertical-farming.htm" target="_blank">The Netherlands</a> is just one country that has rapidly adopted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled-environment_agriculture" target="_blank">controlled-environment agriculture</a>, where high-value specialty crops like herbs, fancy lettuces and tomatoes are produced in year-round illuminated greenhouses. <a href="http://www.verticalfarm.com/?page_id=36" target="_blank">Advocates suggest</a> these completely enclosed buildings – or <a href="https://urbanagnews.com/blog/japan-special-report-plant-factories-with-artificial-light-pfal/" target="_blank">plant factories</a> – could be a way to repurpose urban space, decrease food miles and provide local produce to city dwellers.</p><p>One of the central problems of this process is the <a href="https://theconversation.com/food-security-vertical-farming-sounds-fantastic-until-you-consider-its-energy-use-102657" target="_blank">high monetary cost of providing artificial light</a>, usually via a combination of red and blue light-emitting diodes. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2183/pjab.89.447" target="_blank">Energy costs</a> sometimes exceed 25% of the operational outlay. How can growers, particularly in the developing world, <a href="https://www.voanews.com/usa/people-power-costs-keep-indoor-farming-down-earth" target="_blank">compete when the sun is free</a>? Higher energy use also translates to more carbon emissions, rather than the decreased carbon footprint sustainably farmed plants can provide.</p><p>I've <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kIh3BRwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao" target="_blank">studied how light affects plant growth and development</a> for over 30 years. I recently found myself wondering: Rather than growing plants under a repeating cycle of one day of light and one night of darkness, what if the same daylight was split into pulses lasting only hours, minutes or seconds?</p>
<h2>Short Bursts of Light and Dark</h2><p>So my colleagues and I <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.103803" target="_blank">designed an experiment</a>. We'd apply the normal amount of light in total, just break it up over different chunks of time.</p><p>Of course plants depend on light for photosynthesis, the process that in nature uses the sun's energy to merge carbon dioxide and water into sugars that fuel plant metabolism. Light also directs growth and development through its signals about day and night, and monkeying with that information stream might have disastrous results.</p><p>That's because breaking something good into smaller bits sometimes creates new problems. Imagine how happy you'd be to receive a $100 bill – but not as thrilled with the equivalent 10,000 pennies. We suspected a plant's internal clock wouldn't accept the same luminous currency when broken into smaller denominations.</p><p>And that's exactly what we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.103803" target="_blank">demonstrated in our experiments</a>. Kale, turnip or beet seedlings exposed to cycles of 12 hours of light, 12 hours dark for four days grew normally, accumulating pigments and growing larger. When we decreased the frequency of light-dark cycles to 6 hours, 3 hours, 1 hour or 30 minutes, the plants revolted. We delivered the same amount of light, just applied in different-sized chunks, and the seedlings did not appreciate the treatment.</p><p>The same amount of light applied in shorter intervals over the day caused plants to grow more like they were in darkness. We suspect the light pulses conflicted with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.106.040980" target="_blank">plant's internal clock</a>, and the seedlings had no idea what time of day it was. Stems stretched taller in an attempt to find more light, and processes like pigment production were put on hold.</p><p>But when we applied light in much, much shorter bursts, something remarkable happened. Plants grown under five-second on/off cycles appeared to be almost identical to those grown under the normal light/dark period. It's almost like the internal clock can't get started properly when sunrise comes every five seconds, so the plants don't seem to mind a day that is a few seconds long.</p><p>Just as we prepared to publish, undergraduate collaborator Paul Kusuma found that our discovery was not so novel. We soon realized we'd actually rediscovered something already known for 88 years. Scientists at the U.S. Department of Agriculture <a href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43968018/PDF" target="_blank">saw this same phenomenon in 1931</a> when they grew plants under light pulses of various durations. Their work in mature plants matches what we observed in seedlings with remarkable similarity.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMDAwNzgzNi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY1MTYzMjAzN30.AK5yXYbYrSB0SH5ViDK-DD3oCNG-1YVUTRMxyXQzenY/img.jpg?width=980" id="4fea8" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="05f700e14f0e4ff2f4735895fe69eeaf" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
A 1931 study by Garner and Allard tracked the growth of Yellow Cosmos flowers under light pulses of various durations.
J. Agri. Res. 42: National Agricultural Library, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture., CC BY-ND
<p>Not only was all of this a retread of an old idea, but pulses of light do not save any energy. Five seconds on and off uses the same amount of energy as the lights being on for 12 hours; the lights are still on for half the day.</p><p>But what would happen if we extended the dark period? Five seconds on. Six seconds off. Or 10 seconds off. Or 20 seconds off. Maybe 80 seconds off? They didn't try that in 1931.</p><h2>Building in Extra Downtime</h2><p>It turns out that the plants don't mind a little downtime. After applying light for five seconds to activate photosynthesis and biological processes like pigment accumulation, we turned the light off for 10, or sometimes 20 seconds. Under these extended dark periods, the seedlings grew just as well as they had when the light and dark periods were equal. If this could be done on the scale of an indoor farm, it might translate to a significant energy savings, at least 30% and maybe more.</p><p>Recent yet-to-be published work in our lab has shown that the same concept works in leaf lettuces; they also don't mind an extended dark time between pulses. In some cases, the lettuces are green instead of purple and have larger leaves. That means a grower can produce a diversity of products, and with higher marketable product weight, by turning the lights off.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMDAwODAzNC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxMzgzNTkyMX0.7KtCGZ3oZJhZfM_xIAVgc5V_RfaXvQkxozcNB8Wq2-4/img.jpg?width=980" id="97571" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="b994be15faf52631b072646b0cf96682" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
One variety of lettuce grew purple when given a 10-second dark period. They look similar to those grown with a five-second dark period, yet use 33% less energy. Extending the dark period to 20 seconds yielded green plants with more biomass.
J. Feng, K. Folta
<p>Learning that plants can be grown under bursts of light rather than continuous illumination provides a way to potentially trim the expensive energy budget of indoor agriculture. More fresh vegetables could be grown with less energy, making the process more sustainable. My colleagues and I think this innovation could ultimately help drive new business and feed more people – and do so with less environmental impact.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Grow Lights for Indoor Plants and Indoor Gardening: An Overview <a href="https://t.co/0ZCDG3NQC2">https://t.co/0ZCDG3NQC2</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/Sierra_Magazine?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@Sierra_Magazine</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/CleanAirMoms?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@CleanAirMoms</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateReality?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@ClimateReality</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/970754163704520706?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">March 5, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em>Kevin M. Folta is a professor of horticultural sciences and plant molecular and cellular biology at the University of Florida.<br/>
</em><em>Disclosure statement: Kevin M. Folta received funding from the United States Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture and Vindara Inc to work on questions in agricultural lighting. He is affiliated with Eggsotics Eggs and Produce where his family grows some direct-market produce under hydroponic and/or artificial light conditions. He is reimbursed for travel related to talks in research and science communication. A full list of prior research funding may be seen at <a href="http://www.kevinfolta.com/transparency" target="_blank">www.kevinfolta.com/transparency</a>.</em>
</p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/micro-naps-for-plants-flicking-the-lights-on-and-off-can-save-energy-without-hurting-indoor-agriculture-harvests-120051" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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There's a short window between when a tick bites and when it passes on bacteria or virus. MSU Ag Communications, Courtesy Dr. Tina Nations, CC BY-ND
By Jerome Goddard
When it comes to problems caused by ticks, Lyme disease hogs a lot of the limelight. But various tick species carry and transmit a collection of other pathogens, some of which cause serious, even fatal, conditions.
<p>In fact, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2012.07.003" target="_blank">number of tick-borne disease cases is on the rise</a> in the U.S. The range where various species of ticks live in North America may be <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/593232" target="_blank">expanding due to climate change</a>. Researchers continue to discover <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.EI10-0012-2016" target="_blank">new pathogens that live in ticks</a>. And <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/longhorned-tick/index.html" target="_blank">new, invasive tick species</a> keep turning up.</p><p>In <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JVfeckwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao" target="_blank">my career as a</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1201/b12686" target="_blank">public health entomologist</a>, I've been amazed at the ability of ticks to bounce back from all the ways people try to control them, including with pesticides. Ticks excel at finding new ecological niches for survival. So people and ticks frequently cross paths, exposing us to their bites and the diseases they carry.</p><p>Here are some of the lesser-known, but growing, threats from ticks.</p>
<h2>Ticks Can Spread Bacterial Diseases</h2><p>Certain very small species of bacteria that can cause human diseases, such as rickettsia, ehrlichia and anaplasma, live in ticks. Ticks ingest these bacteria when they drink animals' blood. Then when the ticks take a subsequent blood meal, they pass the bacteria along to the next animal or person they feed on.</p><p>Probably the most well known of these bacterial diseases is <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/rmsf/index.html" target="_blank">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a>, the most frequently reported rickettsial disease in the U.S., with <a href="https://wonder.cdc.gov/nndss/static/2017/annual/2017-table1.html" target="_blank">about 6,000 cases each year</a>. The number of diagnoses seems to be increasing nationwide, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2009.80.601" target="_blank">especially among Native Americans</a>, probably due to exposure on reservations to free-roaming dogs that can carry ticks.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTkyOTM3OC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzODU1MTYzMX0.mZMlf_lB-c0k_2LqmT5cH5_FJux24Pv39qyZi5dmzBM/img.jpg?width=980" id="a387c" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="0db7d917a2f13198bb9265f33265d88c" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Rocky Mountain spotted fever usually comes with a rash, as on this child.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD), CC BY
<p>When people get sick with Rocky Mountain spotted fever, they usually come to a clinic with three things: fever, rash and history of tick bite. They may also report severe headache, chills and muscle pains, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain and diarrhea. A skin rash is usually present after a few days, but not always. Mental confusion, coma and death can occur in severe cases. Untreated, the mortality rate is about 20%; and even with treatment, 4% of those infected die.</p><p>Not all tick species are effective transmitters of the rickettsia bacteria. Even within the vector species, often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa050043" target="_blank">only 1% to 5% of ticks in an area are infected</a>. So getting bitten by a tick that passes rickettsia bacteria on to you is like getting stuck with a needle in a haystack. The primary carriers are the American dog tick in the eastern U.S. and Rocky Mountain wood tick in the West. The brown dog tick has also recently been <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6502a1" target="_blank">shown to be a vector</a>.</p><p>In most tick-borne diseases, the <a href="https://jcm.asm.org/content/25/3/557.short" target="_blank">tick needs to feed for some amount of time</a> before any pathogens it is carrying are transmitted to the animal whose blood it is eating. Rocky Mountain spotted fever organisms generally take between one and three hours for transmission to occur, so attached ticks need to be removed quickly. Doctors usually prescribe the antibiotic doxycycline to treat Rocky Mountain spotted fever, which works quite well if the disease is recognized early.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTkyOTM4NC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyMjYxMjYxMH0.vy39Xq9RTEvVgtTtfQsZtKSiRjw9BseQUA4yLWtb4LA/img.png?width=980" id="10112" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="082ac6fcbff1a6dec1746a21d82fe2d3" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ehrlichiosis/index.html" target="_blank">Ehrlichiosis</a> is another bacterial disease transmitted from ticks to people. In the U.S. it's most commonly caused by <em>Ehrlichia chaffeensis</em> bacteria, carried by lone star ticks which are common in the eastern U.S. Ehrlichia bacteria infect a type of blood cell called leukocytes. Human monocytic ehrlichiosis occurs mostly in the southern and south-central U.S.; <a href="https://wonder.cdc.gov/nndss/static/2017/annual/2017-table1.html" target="_blank">1,642 cases were reported</a> to the CDC in 2017.</p><p>Ehrlichiosis patients usually have fever, headache, muscle aches and a progressive low white blood cell count. As opposed to Rocky Mountain spotted fever, people get a rash only about 20% to 40% of the time. Doctors usually treat ehrlichiosis with doxycycline.</p><p>Another tick-borne bacterial disease to worry about is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6502a1" target="_blank">human granulocytic anaplasmosis</a>. In human granulocytic anaplasmosis, <em>Anaplasma phagocytophilum</em> bacteria infects a type of white blood cell called granulocytes. It mostly occurs in the upper midwestern and northeastern U.S., and the incidence is increasing, with <a href="https://wonder.cdc.gov/nndss/static/2017/annual/2017-table1.html" target="_blank">5,762 cases of human granulocytic anaplasmosis reported</a> to the CDC in 2017.</p><p>Symptoms include fever, headache, muscle aches and progressive low white blood cell count. It's the deer tick <em>Ixodes scapularis</em> — famously also responsible for Lyme disease — that transmits the Anaplasma bacteria to humans. There's the unlucky chance that a bite from a deer tick could infect you with both diseases. Again, recommended therapy is doxycycline.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTkyOTM4NS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYwNDM2MzE1Nn0.4CLBRIpab-Z5tDGIKXQgVcbgYucWOgp8IqMqEUp-x1Y/img.jpg?width=980" id="c5ce3" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="d9e1a35d92a073e2318760074d10e733" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
A female Ixodes scapularis tick.
Dr. Blake Layton, MSU, CC BY-ND
<h2>Ticks Can Carry Viruses, Too</h2><p>People usually think of mosquitoes when they think of insect-transmitted viruses – dengue, Zika or West Nile garner a lot of headlines. But ticks can transmit viruses, too.</p><p>Scientists have historically grouped tick-borne viral diseases into two categories. One is diseases similar to dengue fever. The main dengue-like viral disease transmitted by ticks in the U.S. is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19954" target="_blank">Colorado tick fever</a>, which occurs in mountainous areas of the West.</p><p>The other group of tick-borne diseases resemble mosquito-borne encephalitis. Most of these illnesses, characterized by brain inflammation, are not found in the U.S. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085446" target="_blank">Powassan encephalitis is the one that is</a>, occurring in the northeastern U.S. and adjacent regions of Canada.</p><p>Powassan is a relatively rare but serious human disease, characterized by sudden onset of fever with temperature up to 104 degrees Fahrenheit, along with convulsions. Brain inflammation is usually severe, with vomiting, respiratory distress and prolonged fever.</p><p><a href="https://wonder.cdc.gov/nndss/static/2017/annual/2017-table1.html" target="_blank">Fewer than 100 cases of Powassan have been reported</a> in North America, with about half of them fatal. Its incidence seems to be increasing; there were 34 cases of Powassan reported during 2017. POW is maintained in a natural cycle when ticks — primarily <em>Ixodes cookei</em> — infect animals with the virus via their bites. Then these infected animals may serve as what scientists call <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_reservoir" target="_blank">disease reservoirs</a>, infecting new ticks when they feed on their blood.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTkyOTM5MS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyMzUzMTYzMH0.K1pJMT_2IQ4ySJLnmMBybdGqWAJc-yOsEqA-UMm95Uc/img.jpg?width=980" id="e4b6a" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="6db1f10c51c129ae743b9fcdc1c9dab1" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Tiny larval lone star ticks next to a penny.
Jerome Goddard
<p>In the last decade, researchers have found additional new tick-borne viruses in the U.S. About <a href="https://europepmc.org/articles/pmc5779346" target="_blank">30 cases of Heartland virus</a> have thus far been identified. It's associated with the lone star tick and has been recognized in Missouri, Oklahoma, Kentucky and Tennessee.</p><p>A few cases of a new Thogotovirus <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2312.170532" target="_blank">called Bourbon virus</a> have been identified in the Midwest and southern U.S. The lone star tick may be the vector of Bourbon virus as well.</p>
<h2>A Food Allergy Triggered by a Tick Bite<br></h2><p>Maybe the most bizarre threat from ticks is the "<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283624560" target="_blank">red meat allergy</a>" scientists have recently traced back to tick bites. People can become allergic to eating meat when a tick's saliva passes on the carbohydrate galactose-α-1.3-galactose it had previously picked up in a blood meal from an animal. If prone to allergies, the person can get sensitized to that alpha-gal molecule that's found in animal blood and other tissues.</p><p>Then days or weeks later, he or she may develop hives, swollen skin and lips, or even life-threatening anaphylactic shock three to six hours after eating red meat. Meats containing alpha-gal include beef, pork, lamb, squirrel, rabbit, horse, goat, deer, kangaroo, seal and whale. People who become sensitized to alpha-gal may still eat chicken, turkey and fish.</p><p>Overall, people should be aware of what tick-borne diseases are present in their area and use <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/avoid/on_people.html" target="_blank">personal protection techniques</a> whenever outdoors in tick-infested areas. Remember that ticks often come into close contact with people via pet dogs or cats. It's a good idea to inspect yourself for ticks after being outdoors in tick-infested areas. Reducing the number of tick bites and the amount of time ticks remain attached can go a long way to protecting you from tick-borne diseases.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Invasive Tick Spreads to Ninth State, CDC Warns of 'New and Emerging Disease Threat' <a href="https://t.co/9r4yqpJvxJ">https://t.co/9r4yqpJvxJ</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/1069484932706299904?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">December 3, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jerome-goddard-749231" target="_blank">Jerome Goddard</a> is an extension professor of biochemistry, molecular biology, entomology and plant pathology at Mississippi State University.<br/>
Disclosure statement: Jerome Goddard does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond his academic appointment.</em>
</p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/ticks-spread-plenty-more-for-you-to-worry-about-beyond-lyme-disease-118102" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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How Your Diet Contributes to Nutrient Pollution and Dead Zones in Lakes and Bays
12 July 2019
Insights + Opinion
iStockr / iStock / Getty Images Plus
By Donald Scavia
Every year in early summer, scientists at universities, research institutions and federal agencies release forecasts for the formation of "dead zones" and harmful algal blooms in the Gulf of Mexico, the Chesapeake Bay and Lake Erie. This year the outlook is not good.
<p>The dead zone that forms annually in the Gulf of Mexico is likely to approach, if not surpass, record size at roughly 7,250 square miles. Another dead zone in the Chesapeake Bay is projected to be within the top 20% recorded over the past 20 years — about 2.1 cubic miles, equivalent to over 3.5 million Olympic-size swimming pools. And Lake Erie is also projected to set records, with almost 50,000 tons of potentially toxic <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/algae" rel="noopener noreferrer">algae</a>.</p><p>The key factor driving these forecasts is winter and spring rainfall considerably above normal across the central U.S. The winter of 2018-2019 was the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news/us-records-wettest-winter-capped-by-cooler-wetter-february-2019" target="_blank">wettest on record</a> across the nation, and May was the <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/national-climate-201905" target="_blank">second-wettest month on record</a>.</p><p>Predicting the results isn't rocket science. More rain means more flooding and more runoff from farmlands. These waters carry heavy loads of nutrients, mainly from fertilizer, that fuel algal blooms. The end results include <a href="https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/government-treading-water-dead-zone-hypoxia-agricultural-runoff-fish-kill-nonpoint-source-pollution-surface-runoff-iowa-farmers-dnr-cover-crops-improve-water-quality-12022018" target="_blank">fish kills, closed beaches, possible drinking water alerts and loss of coastal property value</a>.</p>
<span style="display:block;position:relative;padding-top:56.25%;" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="6b9c19524966284a851cd6ce088d1740"><iframe lazy-loadable="true" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5LwbeK-QXNs?rel=0" width="100%" height="auto" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;"></iframe></span>
<h2>Treading Water</h2><p>Algal blooms occur when water bodies become overloaded with nitrogen and phosphorus from farms, water treatment plants and other sources. Warm water and nutrients promote rapid growth of algae. Some strains can be toxic or even fatal to aquatic life and humans.</p><p>Eventually algae settle to the bottom and decay. This process depletes dissolved oxygen in the water, creating "dead zones" where oxygen levels are low enough to kill fish.</p><p>Scientists and public officials have understood this problem for decades, but progress toward addressing it has been painfully slow. Nutrient loads, dead zones and harmful algal blooms in these systems dominated by <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/agriculture" rel="noopener noreferrer">agriculture</a> have <a href="https://theconversation.com/forecasting-dead-zones-and-toxic-algae-in-us-waterways-a-bad-year-for-lake-erie-43747" target="_blank">increased or held grudgingly steady for decades</a>.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTg4NTA0OC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY0NTk2MjE1Mn0.Ue7bo05Dzoli07sApvV5dfwoRcRyKhMvChKYdBvgJAg/img.png?width=980" id="3081f" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="f442bd52f4f6396f13e3c4481e620e1f" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Dead zone and harmful algal bloom trends with 2019 forecasts in red.
From http://scavia.seas.umich.edu/hypoxia-forecasts/
<p>The main policy tool available now to combat nutrient losses from agricultural lands is the <a href="https://www.farmers.gov/farmbill" target="_blank">Farm Bill</a>, enacted about every five years, which provides <a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-budget-would-undo-gains-from-conservation-programs-on-farms-and-ranches-82420" target="_blank">funds for voluntary conservation efforts</a>. Between 1995 and 2015, the U.S. Department of Agriculture provided almost <a href="https://conservation.ewg.org/?_ga=2.138171184.145269961.1561742445-1342849811.1561742445" target="_blank">$32 billion</a> in conservation incentive payments. U.S. water quality would be much worse without these programs, but they simply have not been sufficient to reduce nutrient loads over time.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTg4NTExMS9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzMzk3MzA4NH0.Ebi7DWMBm_73sX2K7vqo7QELWkbsSy5-pD8Zz6UnKF0/img.png?width=980" id="06a59" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="84bbb775b305c59557e19aa8080e1db2" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Nutrient load trends; 2019 loads in red.
From: http://scavia.seas.umich.edu/hypoxia-forecasts/
<h2>Warmer and Wetter</h2><p>Scientists predict that as the climate warms, this problem is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2409" target="_blank">likely to get worse</a>.</p><p>Most climate models forecast <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/" target="_blank">increased precipitation</a>, especially intense spring rains, for most of the Midwest, the Great Lakes basin and the mid-Atlantic. As air warms, it can hold increasing amounts of water vapor, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-driving-rapid-shifts-between-high-and-low-water-levels-on-the-great-lakes-118095" target="_blank">contributes to more precipitation</a> during <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/extreme-weather" rel="noopener noreferrer">extreme weather</a> events. In turn, heavier rainfall will impact nutrient runoff and dead zone formation.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTg4NTI2Mi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYwMTY1OTQ3OH0.n_NcTaebjjpG3CefMTJV_we4ayIUADotM-6iMmPpoiE/img.jpg?width=980" id="5a0f1" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="f695e4f69c85601cb8693eaf5d0d5a96" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Under a worst-case climate change scenario, in which global temperatures rise nearly 5 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels by 2100, very heavy precipitation events in the Midwest, Great Plains and Southeast regions would increase sharply.
NOAA
<h2>A Dietary Strategy</h2><p>Farm-based <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/conservation" rel="noopener noreferrer">conservation</a> programs are important, and some new practices could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.03.015" target="_blank">improve nutrient management</a>. For example, farmers can widen drainage ditches to create two-stage ditches, which allow water to flow onto vegetated side "benches" that capture nutrients during periods of heavy rainfall.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTg4NTM3OC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY0NDc5OTQyMX0.K4sfBZ0gDYNLYyl_IDnoebjCGtwLqs6G94PpRHHG-8Y/img.png?width=980" id="038dc" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="bd2781a5dbd8cacd9fe0e82c0cdab651" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
A two-stage ditch has a low-flow channel and a vegetated side 'benches' that are flooded during higher flows. The grass slows water flow and allows nutrients to settle out.
Ohio State University Extension, CC BY
<p>But even these measures would have to be implemented at <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.1472" target="_blank">unprecedented scales</a> to be effective. The challenge is even more daunting when recognizing that, for example, while the annual total phosphorus load to Lake Erie is large, it is only 10% of the amount applied in fertilizer each year. In addition, as with the Chesapeake and Mississippi watersheds, soils around Lake Erie are already laden with nitrogen and phosphorus.</p><p>In my view, part of the solution could be using markets to <a href="https://theconversation.com/industrial-corn-farming-is-ruining-our-health-and-polluting-our-watersheds-39721" target="_blank">drive a shift away from industrial-scale corn production</a>, which is a major source of nutrient pollution. One major step would be eliminating the federal mandate requiring oil companies to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/renewable-fuel-standard-program/overview-renewable-fuel-standard" target="_blank">blend corn-based ethanol into gasoline</a>, which consumes <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/" target="_blank">40% of U.S. corn production</a>.</p><p>This will be politically difficult as long as presidential primaries <a href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/03/05/2020-democrats-ethanol-225517" target="_blank">start in Iowa</a>. But other strategies may be more feasible, such as encouraging private-sector companies to demand <a href="https://fieldtomarket.org/" target="_blank">corn raised through more sustainable practices</a>.</p><p>Reducing <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/meat-consumption">meat consumption</a>, which consumes another <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/" target="_blank">36% of U.S. corn production</a> for animal feed, could also have a significant impact. Studies have shown that reducing this demand for row crops <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.12.001" target="_blank">reduces nutrient pollution</a>.</p><p>This idea has gained momentum with the growth of the alternative meat industry. The success of startups like <a href="https://www.beyondmeat.com/" target="_blank">Beyond Meat</a> and <a href="https://impossiblefoods.com/" target="_blank">Impossible Foods</a> is luring giants like <a href="http://fortune.com/2019/06/13/tyson-plant-based-meat-pea-protein/" target="_blank">Tyson</a> and <a href="https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/business/chicken-producer-perdue-enters-crowded-plant-based-meat-market-11629576" target="_blank">Perdue</a> into the game. Some are even struggling to keep up with demand for plant-based meat alternatives, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/business/impossible-foods-burger-demand.html" target="_blank">particularly in China</a>. One recent market analysis suggests that plant-based "meat" will <a href="https://www.atkearney.com/retail/article/?/a/how-will-cultured-meat-and-meat-alternatives-disrupt-the-agricultural-and-food-industry" target="_blank">surpass animal sources globally by 2040</a>.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTg4NTUwNC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyOTYzOTYzNH0.oVOIzG8xrsJyXxASLvXXstTzaCKVAJVp13WGsGZ_DdA/img.png?width=980" id="77dd9" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="1d0218e6ee5d5e93d7816388c8d5d4de" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
AT Kearney, CC BY-ND
<h2>Shrinking Agriculture's Footprint</h2><p>Scientists have understood for decades that excess nitrogen and phosphorus degrade Lake Erie, the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Nutrient inputs from sewage treatment plants and other discreet, easily identifiable sources have declined because they are regulated under the Clean Water Act.</p><p>But the nutrients fouling these water bodies now come mostly from diffuse sources, particularly industrial-scale row crop agriculture. Those operations are not subject to the Clean Water Act, and voluntary conservation programs seem to have at best kept pace with the expansion of large-scale farming.</p><p>After analyzing these issues and providing policy advice on them for much of my 45-year career, it's frustrating to see so little change. But I am hopeful that current work that addresses agricultural pollution in broader contexts may have an impact.</p><p>For example, recent reports connecting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4" target="_blank">reduced meat consumption</a> to both positive environmental effects and improved health should provide additional incentives for change. <a href="https://www.wri.org/publication/creating-sustainable-food-future#main-content" target="_blank">Research institutes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025957" target="_blank">scholars</a> are laying out comprehensive global pathways to more sustainable agriculture that are designed to feed the world and protect and restore natural ecosystems.</p><p>My hope lies in the combination of health- and market-driven movement toward plant-based meat substitutes and enlightened policies that support more sustainable practices in agriculture's critical role of providing food and fiber to the world.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Near Record ‘Dead Zone’ Predicted for Gulf of Mexico <a href="https://t.co/glpoleJ4ih">https://t.co/glpoleJ4ih</a></p>— Enviro Voter Project (@Enviro_Voter) <a href="https://twitter.com/Enviro_Voter/status/1138838616216604673?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">June 12, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em>Donald Scavia is professor emeritus at the School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan.<br/>
</em><em>Disclosure statement: Donald Scavia has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environment and Climate Change Canada, the Erb Family Foundation, the Joyce Foundation, and the C.S. Mott Foundation.</em>
</p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-diet-contributes-to-nutrient-pollution-and-dead-zones-in-lakes-and-bays-118902" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
</p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118902/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
- Dead Zones Are a Global Water Pollution Challenge — But With ... ›
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Biodiversity Helps Coral Reefs Thrive and Could Be Used Strategically to Save Them
27 June 2019
Insights + Opinion
A healthy coral reef at Swains Island, American Samoa. NOAA / NMFS / PIFSC / CRED, Oceanography Team / CC BY 2.0
By Cody Clements
Coral reefs are home to so many species that they often are called "the rainforests of the seas." Today they face a daunting range of threats, including ocean warming and acidification, overfishing and pollution. Worldwide, more than one-third of all coral species are at risk of extinction.
<p>I am one of many scientists who are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hIj0CIAAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">studying corals</a> to find ways of helping them survive and recover. As a recent report from the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine shows, researchers are exploring <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25279/a-research-review-of-interventions-to-increase-the-persistence-and-resilience-of-coral-reefs" target="_blank">many different strategies</a>. Some, such as managed breeding to make corals more tolerant of stresses, are already being developed at small scales. Others, such as moving corals to colonize new areas, have not been tested yet.</p><p>My own work examines whether greater <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/biodiversity">diversity</a> of coral species on reefs can help corals survive and thrive. In a study published earlier this year, my colleague <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EAzpJiQAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">Mark Hay</a> and I found evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0752-7" target="_blank">the answer is yes</a>. This finding could help to inform broader strategies for making coral reefs more resilient in altered <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/oceans">oceans</a>.</p>
<h2>In Nature, More Is Better</h2><p>Are ecosystems healthier if they contain many species than if they harbor only a few? This is a central question in ecology. Generally, scientists have found that ecosystems with more diverse <a href="https://socratic.org/questions/what-s-the-difference-between-a-keystone-species-and-a-foundation-species" target="_blank">foundation species</a> – those that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2019.02.020" target="_blank">define a system and are inseparable from it</a>, such as trees in a forest – tend to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2328" target="_blank">healthier and function better</a>.</p><p>Until recently, no one had applied this test to coral reefs. But we do know that healthy coral reefs are diverse, structurally complex ecosystems dominated by corals. In contrast, reefs that have been damaged by stresses such as <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html" target="_blank">coral bleaching events</a> tend to become simplified, less diverse landscapes, often dominated by seaweeds.</p><p>For our study we chose a reef area on the southwestern coast of Fiji's main island, Viti Levu, in the South Pacific. Many reefs along this coast have been heavily degraded by <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/overfishing">overfishing</a> and other human-related activities, reducing coral cover and allowing seaweeds to dominate.</p><p>There are hundreds of coral species across the Pacific, but at smaller scales, we found just five species or fewer during preliminary surveys conducted on the degraded reef at our site. Since these conditions mirror what is happening to many reefs worldwide, we saw it as an ideal place to test whether coral diversity matters for the "new normal" that we expect to see on reefs of the future.</p>
<span style="display:block;position:relative;padding-top:56.25%;" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="8611c99e49e8f7cc82a0f20a7686e4e3"><iframe lazy-loadable="true" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/eo6rHkL7Fck?rel=0" width="100%" height="auto" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;"></iframe></span>
<h2>Underwater Gardens</h2><p>Our team created 48 concrete plots on the sea floor of the degraded reef, which served as the bases for experimental coral gardens. We created single-species gardens that each contained one of three coral species – <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em>, commonly known as cauliflower coral; <em>Porites cylindrica</em>, also known as yellow finger coral; and <em>Acropora millepora</em>, one of a number species known as staghorn corals. We also planted mixed gardens containing all three species.</p><p>We chose these corals because they are common to reefs across the Pacific and are representative of different coral families that have shown varying responses to a variety of harmful disturbances. In all, each garden contained 18 coral individuals, for a total of 864 corals.</p><p>To assess each coral's performance as it grew, we needed to remove them from their plots periodically. So we cut off the tops of hundreds of soda bottles and planted an individual coral in the upside-down neck of each bottle with epoxy putty. We embedded the bottle caps into our concrete slabs so that we could easily unscrew each bottle neck to examine the coral it held, then screw it back into its base. Over 16 months we weighed the corals and tracked other measures of their well-being, including tissue death and colonization of each garden by harmful seaweeds.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTYyNzY4NC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNDMxMDE5OH0.FNOkHDo3ZflgH2mjpew4GRi8GRzJZcs4tQO-XqAIHZE/img.jpg?width=980" id="9c410" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="e257db602c88a8fe8037f8b19ff2f0b2" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Experimental coral gardens on a degraded reef in Fiji. Gardens with a mix of coral species performed better than gardens containing only one species.
Cody Clements / CC BY-ND
<p>We consistently found that corals grown in mixed-species gardens performed better than those in single-species plots. Within four months, coral growth in the mixed-species gardens was even exceeding the best-performing single-species gardens. This suggests that different species may benefit each other in yet unknown ways, at least during early stages of a coral community's development.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTYyNzY4Ni9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY1NTAzNjA3M30.Un_jEMEqDmZ9CHhAzEOrTpqJ7mnF--mSrBM12XXNuJE/img.jpg?width=980" id="75057" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="a53f6d4f703ea3f7530596d7f30d1266" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Examples of single- and mixed-species coral gardens through time during our 16-month experiment. At four months, mixed-species gardens were outperforming single-species gardens in multiple ways – growing faster on average than even the best performing single-species gardens (Acropora millepora). By 16 months, growth was comparable between mixed-species and Acropora gardens, but aggregate performance of single-species gardens continued to lag behind their mix-species counterparts.
Clements and Hay, 2019 / CC BY-ND
<h2>Why Is More Better?</h2><p>The next question is what drove the effects that we observed. We hope to investigate a number of leads in future experiments. For example, farmers commonly observe that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102246" target="_blank">planting a diverse mix of crops helps to reduce the spread of infectious diseases</a> among individuals. Could the same be true for coral reefs?</p><p>Our initial findings offer both concern and hope for the future of coral reefs. If diversity is integral to coral well-being, then continued species loss could dramatically alter these ecosystems in ways that lead to further reef decline. How many parts can be removed from the "ecosystem engine" before it breaks down?</p><p>That said, many of the <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25279/chapter/2#3" target="_blank">strategies in the National Academies report</a> involve using biodiversity – both at the genetic and species level – to enhance coral reef resilience. Examples include cross-breeding corals between populations; altering coral genes to give them new functions, such as higher heat tolerance; and moving stress-tolerant corals or coral genes to new locations.</p><p>Promising advances in technology, such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/10/science/coral-reefs-mapping-biodiversity.html" target="_blank">mapping coral reefs from the air</a>, may also help researchers assess coral health and determine which species they contain. This baseline information may help better inform management and restoration efforts.</p><p>Corals are in trouble, but they aren't down for the count yet. Perhaps harnessing the power of their remaining biodiversity can help give them a fighting chance.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Researchers Use Technology and Nature to Save Hawaii’s Coral Reefs From Invasive Algae <a href="https://t.co/FIeqApvnCC">https://t.co/FIeqApvnCC</a></p>— PFMC (@PacificCouncil) <a href="https://twitter.com/PacificCouncil/status/1030577552405028866?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">August 17, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em><span style="background-color: initial;">Cody Clements is a p</span>ostdoctoral fellow at the Georgia Institute of Technology.<br/></em>
<em>Disclosure statement: Cody Clements receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the National Geographic Society, and the Teasley Endowment to the Georgia Institute of Technology.
</em></p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/biodiversity-helps-coral-reefs-thrive-and-could-be-part-of-strategies-to-save-them-111723" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em></p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111723/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
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Women Are Rising in the Conservation Movement, but Still Face #MeToo Challenges
24 June 2019
Insights + Opinion
Cecilie_Arcurs / E+ / Getty Images
By Megan Jones and Jennifer Solomon
The #MeToo movement has caused profound shake-ups at organizations across the U.S. in the last two years. So far, however, it has left many unresolved questions about how workplaces can be more inclusive and equitable for women and other diverse groups.
<p>In its latest twist, over the last month a series of <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2019/06/11/jewell-nature-conservancy-1524088" target="_blank">top executives</a> have exited <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank">The Nature Conservancy</a>, the largest <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/conservation">conservation</a> organization in North America. They left after an internal investigation, prompted by sexual harassment and workplace misconduct accusations, which found that the organization's culture "can make it <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2019/05/29/the-nature-conservancy-harassment-probe-1488630" target="_blank">difficult for women to thrive</a>."</p><p>We have been studying women in conservation leadership for the past several years, and unfortunately this news didn't shock us. Our research shows that harassment is one of many gender-related challenges that frequently confront women conservation leaders.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">I’m not seeing a lot of buzz about this outside of my TNC alumni boards. But in the last week, <a href="https://twitter.com/nature_org?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@nature_org</a>’s President, CEO, and now Caribbean program chief have resigned amid an internal probe on workplace Miss conduct, sexual harassment, and gender discrimination. This is huge.</p>— Ember McCoy (@embermc) <a href="https://twitter.com/embermc/status/1138152976554610688?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">June 10, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<h2>Women's Expanding Presence in Conservation</h2><p>For over 30 years environmental conservation in the U.S. has been critiqued for being <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41674848" target="_blank">led by white, wealthy people</a>, <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/the-rise-of-the-american-conservation-movement" target="_blank">mainly men</a>. Environmental organizations have pledged to do better by <a href="https://www.greenbiz.com/article/why-diversity-sustainability-matters-and-what-you-can-do" target="_blank">hiring more diverse staffs</a> and partnering more closely with <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2015/05/new-sierra-club-president-green-diversity-problem-118433" target="_blank">environmental justice advocates</a>.</p><p>Women are expanding their presence in conservation: In 2017 they occupied <a href="https://www.diversegreen.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/BeyondDiversity_NGO_Scorecard.Final_.pdf" target="_blank">41% of full-time staff jobs</a>. But until recently there has been little research on their experiences.</p><p>And The Nature Conservancy is not the first organization where women have complained about a challenging work climate. Since 2016 sexual harassment scandals have been reported at the nonprofit group <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/04/calls-for-change-in-handling-abuse-allegations-at-top-conservation-group/" target="_blank">Conservation International</a> and the <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.21/how-the-park-service-is-failing-women" target="_blank">U.S. National Park Service</a>.</p><p>Research has identified numerous workplace barriers that make it hard for professional women to advance. They include <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.0148" target="_blank">challenges to their competence</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211286109" target="_blank">salary and promotion disparities</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412451728" target="_blank">sexual harassment</a>. These challenges have been called a "<a href="https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/through-the-labyrinth-the-truth-about-how-women-become-leaders" target="_blank">labyrinth</a>" that can hold many women back from senior leadership. Although environmental conservation is a progressive-leaning field whose advocates view themselves as striving to "do good," we found in a recent study that female scientists who led conservation efforts <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/csp2.36" target="_blank">faced many of these obstacles</a>.</p>
<h2>Gender-Related Challenges at Environmental Organizations</h2><p>We interviewed 56 women in conservation leadership positions at non-government organizations, federal and state agencies and other organizations in 19 states. Their ages ranged from 26 to 64, and they had diverse natural and social science credentials.</p><p>In our conversations they described six categories of gender-related challenges. They included salary inequality and difficulty negotiating pay levels; unequal hiring and promotion; informal exclusion; sexual harassment and inadequate organizational responses; and assumptions that that they were either unqualified to do their work or unfit to be leaders.</p><p>Women remembered these challenges starting early in their careers, whether in the form of harassment at remote field sites or judgment that legitimate scientists shouldn't wear high heels or makeup. For many it continued into their late careers as senior leaders whose colleagues still greeted their success with surprise.</p><p>Women of all backgrounds reported these experiences. Most had encountered at least four of these challenges. Many reported experiencing sexual harassment, from unwanted comments to unwanted contact. A few described male supervisors or colleagues behaving in verbally or physically threatening ways.</p>
<p>In their view these behaviors often went unreported because women feared retaliation or did not think reporting would lead to change. When organizations did take action, women in our study viewed it as insufficient. As one woman explained, "I've thought about reporting it and then I was like, why? He won't be held accountable for change. It would be on me, and it would be something like, 'You need to take that less personally.'"</p><p>Women of color face even higher hurdles than their white counterparts. Black, Hispanic and Asian American study participants described being singled out as "the only" conservationist of their race or ethnicity and having colleagues assume they were not leaders or scientists. As several of them explained, white women might struggle to sit at the conservation table, but women of color faced many challenges to even get into the building.</p>
<h2>What Kind of Support Helps?</h2><p>Our participants told us that two types of support had improved their situations. One category consisted of structural measures – organizational policies on sexual harassment, salary inequity and other issues, and training on topics such as leadership and diversity. Some women reported that organizational policies on sexual harassment were only put in place following a scandal.</p><p>Other helpful measures centered on personal relationships. They included behaviors such as providing opportunities, learning women's individual needs, offering feedback and guidance, connecting women to professional networks, championing their work and demonstrating confidence in them.</p><p>Seeing these behaviors modeled by leaders, regardless of their gender, was particularly important. In this light, the hiring of former Interior Secretary Sally Jewell as The Nature Conservancy's interim CEO seems promising. Jewell has already highlighted the need for a <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060561213" target="_blank">workplace culture</a> "where employees can bring their whole selves to work."</p>
<h2>Why Diversity Matters in Conservation</h2><p>Conservation is more than protecting <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/wildlife">wildlife</a> and natural systems. It also involves working with people to promote <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/sustainability">sustainable</a> lifestyles and habits, so that future generations can thrive. In a 2014 essay, 240 conservation scientists asserted that "issues of gender and cultural bias" were hindering conservation by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/515027a" target="_blank">fueling divisive arguments</a> over why and how to conserve nature.</p><p>"Conservation regularly encounters varied points of view and a range of values in the real world," they wrote. "To address and engage these views and values, we call for more-inclusive representation of scientists and practitioners in the charting of our field's future, and for a more-inclusive approach to conservation."</p><p>The upheaval at The Nature Conservancy is part of broad calls for a <a href="https://grist.org/feature/the-unsustainable-whiteness-of-green/" target="_blank">transformation of the U.S. conservation movement</a>. There are many reasons to believe that a more diverse movement <a href="https://cdn.naaee.org/sites/default/files/eepro/resource/files/diversity_module.9.22.15.pdf" target="_blank">will be more effective</a>, not only in attracting and retaining talented staff, but also in addressing the <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/" target="_blank">unprecedented extinction crisis facing our planet</a>.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Why We Need More Women Involved in Creating Environmental Policy <a href="https://t.co/TKuoMEryEU">https://t.co/TKuoMEryEU</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/CleanAirMoms?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@CleanAirMoms</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/NRDC?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@NRDC</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/WenonahHauter?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@WenonahHauter</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/foe_us?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@foe_us</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/YEARSofLIVING?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@YEARSofLIVING</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/Earthjustice?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@Earthjustice</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateReality?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@ClimateReality</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/1027218655640207361?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">August 8, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p class=""><em>Megan Jones is a Ph.D. candidate in human dimensions of natural resources at Colorado State University.<br/>Jennifer Solomon is an assistant professor of human dimensions of natural resources at Colorado State University.<br/>Disclosure statement: The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</em></p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/women-are-rising-in-the-conservation-movement-but-still-face-metoo-challenges-117071" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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How to Handle Raccoons, Snakes and Other Critters in Your Yard (Hint: Not With a Thermos)
13 June 2019
Insights + Opinion
Andy Langager / Flickr
By Leslie Burger
I heard a local story of a man who, in his excitement to kill a rattlesnake, used the only thing he had available ─ his thermos bottle. The next scene in this drama has the man in the hospital receiving anti-venom to treat a snake bite.
<p><a href="https://bioone.org/journals/Wildlife-Research/volume-42/issue-7/WR14229/Humanwildlife-interactions-in-urban-areas--a-review-of-conflicts/10.1071/WR14229.short" target="_blank">Encounters with wildlife</a> are becoming more common in towns and neighborhoods as <a href="https://theconversation.com/concrete-jungle-cities-adapt-to-growing-ranks-of-coyotes-cougars-and-other-urban-wildlife-43588" target="_blank">urbanization increases</a>, and people often do not know what to do in these situations. Many species of urban <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/wildlife">wildlife</a>, such as butterflies, <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/bees">bees</a>, beetles, lizards, bats and most birds, are benign or even beneficial, helping to control <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/bats/benefits-of-bats.htm" target="_blank">mosquitoes</a>, pollinate flowers and trees, recycle nutrients, and provide many other hidden ecological services.</p><p>But there can be also some associated health concerns, as some species bring the risk of parasites or disease. For example, some snakes like rattlesnakes or copperheads can be venomous. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3809387?casa_token=K8VKBvyN_bgAAAAA:t4wZTz24KkPC-tJm5Zgis0U7W6AIaipGL4noHy9N809X8MgYqwR-azK-JnKHHYKd3hQUV7obRS78AnmH-dWYIPRaPAlsCp2og8LsDlXpjf3ZIUEs&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents" target="_blank">Habitat loss to fragmentation</a>, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0102261" target="_blank">urbanization</a> and <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcseprd1422028.pdf" target="_blank">expanding agricultural production</a> means <a href="https://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/adjunct/snr0704/snr07041f.pdf" target="_blank">suburban and urban spaces</a> will increasingly become options for wildlife searching for new homes. It is not just snakes, but also coyotes, foxes, raccoons, deer and even bears.</p><p>As a wildlife biologist and extension educator, my job is to help people more fully understand wildlife for the betterment of both people and <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/animals/">animals</a>. People generally enjoy wildlife. Renowned ecologist E. O. Wilson coined the term "<a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GAO8BwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP6&dq=Kellert,+S.+R.+and+E.+O.+Wilson,+1995.+The+biophilia+hypothesis.+Island+Press&ots=plt8IED_vY&sig=ZfcB7ol5zGettJk4mmXFjVAkD0w#v=onepage&q=Kellert%2C%20S.%20R.%20and%20E.%20O.%20Wilson%2C%201995.%20The%20biophilia%20hypothesis.%20Island%20Press&f=false" target="_blank">Biophilia" (meaning "life fondness")</a> to describe this seemingly inherent affinity humans have for natural life. Rather than being too friendly or overly fearful, people should be aware and respectful of wildlife that may be in their neighborhood.</p>
<h2>What About Those Snakes?</h2><p>Many people ─ like the thermos-wielding man in the opening story ─ may not realize that snakes are beneficial and that attacking them with a dangerous tool, much less a thermos, is increasing the likelihood that it will be scared and bite in self-defense. About <a href="http://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/venomous_snake_faqs.shtml" target="_blank">7,000 to 8,000 people</a> are bitten each year by a venomous snake, but death from one is very rare.</p><p>While they might not have the charisma of a panda or polar bear, snakes serve an important role in the environment. They <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/snake" target="_blank">eat insect pests</a> as well as rodents that can serve as vectors for parasites and infectious diseases like the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/plague/index.html" target="_blank">plague</a> that may be <a href="https://cc4d3dc4-a-d6d9d6da-s-sites.googlegroups.com/a/irri.org/rodent-management/resources/journal-articles/books-and-book-chapters/ratsmiceandpeoplerodentbiologyandmanagement/rats%2CmicePages1-114.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cr4-Jq8l0Vm2l2fhfLGgVkQc5itiu8qharSVuX3Uk02DRjS3ZnBhKNiAu3WS0D2MkZJVFOlm_44Axfhm_TffBhU-NYbU3C-w7HcrfrHwNU5kITuxiwmDnUWcBocAbny4eRE1NaDPFCgf9sWs0CTTUGLWkjyI5op4eO_kWf5vCUeoDzCbhyoy6svgwgVBWK04p17-RVn_fmmX___LmMG7YkWZFz2R3ZyGf8S71SrGSuXPCrB38lnlrGJwP0KU6xErxDvLV3vGgrYX5bxWzN218Mc7WvPN9L3yJWQX13T8Hh6mcyH8kBDS726L7Dn79T3XPGb67EeXtFimLpbcWvkXpMKnqTneZTH5QkF9sTXz47mHZiGO70%3D&attredirects=0#page=12" target="_blank">transmitted to humans</a>. True, a venomous snake hanging around the backyard would be a situation for concern. But since only <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/~mcs2/herp/SoNA.html" target="_blank">20 of the estimated 127 species</a> in North America are venomous, the probability of encountering a venomous snake is pretty low. Nevertheless, if a venomous snake does end up near a home, wisdom calls for keeping children and pets away until professional help arrives to remove the animal.</p>
<h2>Not-So-Adorable Raccoons</h2><p>Most people aren't worried about a cute raccoon eating out of the cat's outdoor food dish. However, that same animal could be a <a href="https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/de-gruyter/management-of-raccoons-procyon-lotor-in-ontario-canada-do-human-E0ZXk0UpHY" target="_blank">carrier for rabies</a>, <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/1845179" target="_blank">parasites</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2634612/" target="_blank">influenza</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00039896.1975.10666788" target="_blank">salmonella</a> or other pathogens that are issues for people and household pets. Close proximity to people and pets is discouraged for all wildlife species, even the cute ones.</p>
<h2>What About Other Critters?</h2><p>If wildlife such as coyotes, deer or foxes do appear in the yard, the best option for a peaceful encounter is to give them space. When met by people, most wild animals, if not habituated to humans, will either escape the imminent danger humans pose or hunker down to hide until the coast is clear for them to leave. It is when people move in closer ─ whether intentionally to help or harm or accidentally through unawareness ─ that a wild animal will feel the need to defend itself physically. For the untrained person, it is always wisest to go inside and wait it out.</p><p>Homeowners who don't want any furry or scaly visitors should be mindful not to provide food or shelter. Secure outdoor trashcan lids, scoop up spilled seed at bird feeders, and remove outdoor pet food bowls that <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/content/printable_version/fs_living_with_wildlife.pdf" target="_blank">may attract these creatures</a>. Stacks of firewood and piles of yard debris provide shelter to smaller critters, so if this is not your goal, consider alternatives.</p><p>In those instances where an unwanted guest does not move on, it is best for all involved to contact local wildlife experts for assistance rather than trying to handle the situation without help from those with proper training. Not only will this avert any unwanted injuries to people or animals, it will also prevent any unintentional violations of the state and federal laws that protect most wildlife in the U.S.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTU5Njk0Ni9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY0MTMyNTE3M30.XZW8C-WY1toraI7G6Y2CMlH5GRe55PgY36IZCXDiH98/img.jpg?width=980" id="c9236" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="fddab308dac2c1c6918f271e54dbcbe8" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
A coyote in Portland, Oregon.
SoulRider.222 / CC BY-ND 2.0
<h2>What if You Want Some Backyard Wildlife?</h2><p>Some folks want to create space for nature by offering the food, shelter and water that animals are seeking. This option helps restore some of the functions and services that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0160017605275160" target="_blank">natural ecosystems provide</a>. Bird feeders, pollinator plantings, (unchlorinated) water features, and native trees and shrubs can be artfully incorporated into landscaping to provide beauty and supply <a href="https://www.nwf.org/garden-for-wildlife/create" target="_blank">backyard habitats</a>. This is supplemental support and is different from caring for wild animals as if they were domesticated. Deliberately feeding animals like squirrels, deer or raccoons can create a hazardous situation for people and wildlife, leading to increased risk of negative encounters, disease and harm. This practice is not supported or encouraged by professional wildlife biologists.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Cities: Where the Wild Things Are <a href="https://t.co/AdEHTesQkQ">https://t.co/AdEHTesQkQ</a></p>— The World Bee Project CIC (@worldbeeproject) <a href="https://twitter.com/worldbeeproject/status/1001090057997111296?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">May 28, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>
<em>Leslie Burger is an assistant extension professor of wildlife, fisheries and aquaculture at Mississippi State University.<br/>
</em><em>Disclosure statement: Leslie Burger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond her academic appointment.</em>
</p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-handle-raccoons-snakes-and-other-critters-in-your-yard-hint-not-with-a-thermos-118375" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
</p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118375/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
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A related species photographed in 1991. John Wombey / CSIRO / CC BY 3.0
By John R. Platt
Got good eyesight and some time on your hands? Australia needs you.
Zoos Victoria has issued a public appeal to help find a lizard species that hasn't been credibly observed in 50 years. The Victorian grasslands earless dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) was last seen in 1969 and could possibly be mainland Australia's first reptile extinction — if it isn't just hiding.
<p>And hiding is something this dragon is good at. In addition to being small, elusive and camouflaged, the species also managed to hide its very existence from scientists until this year.</p><p>Its cover was blown last month when researchers announced that what had previously appeared to be one lizard species — the grassland earless dragon — was actually four different species with minor morphological differences and unique genetic makeups.</p><p>The previous taxonomic name, <em>T. pinguicolla</em>, has been assigned to the lizards once found, but now long unseen, in the Victoria region. The three new species, all found in different locations, have been named <em>T. lineata</em> in the Canberra region; <em>T. osbornei</em> in Cooma; and <em>T. mccartneyi</em> near Bathurst.</p><p>The new dragon species — including the possible extinction — were announced in a paper published May 22 in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.190233" target="_blank"><em>Royal Society Open Science</em></a>.</p><p>The paper's title identifies the Victorian dragon as "the first possible extinction of a reptile in mainland Australia," but the write-up takes a much more cautious approach. The researchers note that the species is difficult to detect and surveys may not have covered all the dragons' remaining habitat. Therefore, they wrote, "we suggest that <em>T. pinguicolla</em> does not yet meet the criteria for being considered either Extinct or Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct)."</p><p>Its extinction risk, however, still needs to be assessed, as does that of the other three species.</p><p>"Now that they are four separate species the <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/conservation" target="_self">conservation</a> recovery teams will be working to re-evaluate the status of the species," lead author Jane Melville told the <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6156165/new-species-of-endangered-lizard-found/?cs=14231" target="_blank">Australian Associated Press</a>. She also noted that the recovery plan for the previously recognized species is a decade old and in need of revision.</p>
<p>If the Victorian dragon still exists, now is the time to find it. The grasslands where it was previously seen have mostly been paved over or converged to agricultural fields, leaving little possible habitat. A <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=343920141519318;res=IELHSS;type=pdf" target="_blank">2017 study</a> identified a few possible locations to search, but intensive trapping in 2018 failed to turn up any living dragons, according to Zoos Victoria. (The search did, however, improve their understanding of the local invertebrate community, showing that the areas could still potentially support the lizards.)</p><p>The zoo is still looking, and they hope the general public can aid in the dragon quest. "We need your help," the zoo <a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/fighting-extinction/priority-native-threatened-species/grassland-earless-dragon" target="_blank">posted</a> last month. "Nine possible sightings have been reported by the community in the past two years. Upon further investigation these were identified as other dragon species, but the more people looking, the higher the chance of finding the dragons if they are out there." Sightings can be reported to the <a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/fighting-extinction/priority-native-threatened-species/grassland-earless-dragon/dragon-search" target="_blank">Dragon Search website</a>.</p><p>Does the Victorian grassland earless lizard still exist? In a recent post for <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-not-giving-up-the-search-for-mainland-australias-first-extinct-lizard-117831" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>, Melville acknowledged that the news of the possible extinction was worrying, but quickly added "We're not leaving this lizard for dead just yet."</p><p>The quest continues — as it does for so many other lost and <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/endangered-species" target="_self">possibly extinct species</a>.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Human <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Civilization?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Civilization</a> Is Under Threat. We Must Save <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Nature?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Nature</a> to Save Ourselves <a href="https://t.co/sRGTc4pYFP">https://t.co/sRGTc4pYFP</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/NRDC?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@NRDC</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/Greenpeace?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@Greenpeace</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/1126924962437193729?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">May 10, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p><em>John R. Platt is the editor of <a href="https://therevelator.org" target="_blank">The Revelator</a></em><em>.</em><br/></p>From Your Site Articles
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By Lotfi Belkhir
Rarely does mention of the pharmaceutical industry conjure up images of smoke stacks, pollution and environmental damage.
Yet our recent study found the global pharmaceutical industry is not only a significant contributor to global warming, but it is also dirtier than the global automotive production sector.
<p>It was a surprise to find how little attention researchers have paid to the industry's greenhouse gas emissions. Only two other studies had some relevance: one looked at the <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1610" target="_blank">environmental impact of the U.S. healthcare system</a> and the other at the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0571" target="_blank">pollution (mostly water) discharged by drug manufacturers</a>.</p><p>Our study was the first to assess the carbon footprint of the pharma sector.</p>
<h2>More Polluting</h2><p>More than 200 companies represent the global pharmaceutical market, yet only 25 consistently reported their direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions in the past five years. Of those, only 15 reported their emissions since 2012.</p><p>One immediate and striking result is that the pharmaceutical sector is far from green. We assessed the sector's emissions for each one million dollars of revenue in 2015. Larger businesses will always generate more emissions than smaller ones; in order to do a fair comparison, we evaluated emissions intensity.</p><p>We found it was 48.55 tonnes of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) per million dollars. That's about 55 percent greater than the automotive sector at 31.4 tonnes of CO2e/$M for that same year. We restricted our analysis to the direct emissions generated by the companies' operations and to the indirect emissions generated by the electricity purchased by these companies from their respective utilities companies.</p><p>The total global emissions of the pharma sector amounts to about 52 megatonnes of CO2e in 2015, more than the 46.4 megatonnes of CO2e generated by the automotive sector in the same year. The value of the pharma market, however, is smaller than the automotive market. By our calculations, the pharma market is 28 percent smaller yet 13 percent more polluting than the automotive sector.</p>
<h2>Extreme Variability</h2><p>We also found emissions intensity varied greatly within the pharmaceutical sector. For example, the emissions intensity of Eli Lilly (77.3 tonnes of CO2e/$M) was 5.5 times greater than Roche (14 tonnes CO2e/$M) in 2015, and Procter & Gamble's CO2 emissions were five times greater than Johnson & Johnson even though the two companies generated the same level of revenues and sell similar lines of products.</p><p>We found outliers too. The German company Bayer AG reported emissions of 9.7 megatonnes of CO2e and revenues of US$51.4 billion, yielding an emission intensity of 189 tonnes CO2e/$M. This intensity level is more than four times greater than the overall pharmaceutical sector.</p><p>In trying to explain this incredibly large deviation, we found that Bayer's revenues derive from pharmaceutical products, medical equipment and agricultural commodities. While Bayer reports its financial revenues separately for each division, it lumps together the emissions from all the divisions. The company also reports and tracks its emission intensity in terms of tonnes of CO2e produced for each tonne of manufactured goods, whether fertilizer or Aspirin, for example.</p><p>This level of opacity makes it not only impossible to assess the true environmental performance of these kind of companies. It also raises questions about the sincerity of these companies' strategies and actions in reducing their contribution to <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/climate-change">climate change</a>.</p>
<h2>Climate Compliance</h2><p>We also estimated how much the pharmaceutical sector would have to reduce its emissions to comply with the <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf" target="_blank">reduction targets in the Paris agreement</a>.</p><p>We found that by 2025, the overall pharma sector would need to reduce its emissions intensity by about 59 percent from 2015 levels. While this is clearly a far cry from their current levels, it is interesting to note that some of the 15 largest companies are already operating at that level, namely Amgen Inc., Johnson & Johnson and Roche Holding AG.</p><p>If those performance levels are achievable by some, why can't they be achieved by all?</p><p>These three leading companies are also the ones with the highest level of profitability and revenue growth in the whole sector. Indeed Roche, Johnson & Johnson and Amgen showed revenue increases of 27.2 percent, 25.7 percent and 7.8 percent respectively between 2012 and 2015, while managing to reduce their emissions by 18.7 percent, 8.3 percent and eight percent respectively. This supports the premise that environmental and financial performance aren't mutually exclusive.</p><p>The pharmaceutical industry is responsible for some serious environmental impacts beyond greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the wastewater from drug manufacturers in Patancheru, India has left river sediment, ground water and drinking water polluted. Researchers estimated that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2013.0571" target="_blank">in a single day, 44 kilograms of ciprofloxacin, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, was released</a> — enough to treat everyone in a city of 44,000 inhabitants.</p><p>Clearly, there is a dire need for more extensive and sustained research as well as more scrutiny of the pharmaceutical industry's environmental practices and performance. Healing people is no justification for killing the planet.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr"><a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Wastewater?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Wastewater</a> Treatment Plants Could Contribute to a ‘Post-Antibiotic World,’ Study Warns <a href="https://t.co/LRyIdqd04d">https://t.co/LRyIdqd04d</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/saveantibiotics?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@saveantibiotics</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/AntibioticResistance?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#AntibioticResistance</a></p>— EcoWatch (@EcoWatch) <a href="https://twitter.com/EcoWatch/status/1103807624859054080?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">March 8, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
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<em>Lotfi Belkhir is an associate professor & chair of eco-entrepreneurship at McMaster University.<br/></em><em>Disclosure statement: Lotfi Belkhir does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond his academic appointment.</em></p><p>
<em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/big-pharma-emits-more-greenhouse-gases-than-the-automotive-industry-115285" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em>
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- Superbug Risk Rises as Big Pharma Fails to Disclose Antibiotic ... ›
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Retired Oil Rigs off the California Coast Could Find New Lives as Artificial Reefs
16 May 2019
Insights + Opinion
A school of juvenile bocaccio in the midwaters of Platform Gilda, Santa Barbara Channel, Calif. Scott Gietler, CC BY-ND
By Ann Scarborough Bull and Milton Love
Offshore oil and gas drilling has been a contentious issue in California for 50 years, ever since a rig ruptured and spilled 80,000 to 100,000 barrels of crude oil off Santa Barbara in 1969. Today it's spurring a new debate: whether to completely dismantle 27 oil and gas platforms scattered along the southern California coast as they end their working lives, or convert the underwater sections into permanent artificial reefs for marine life.
<p>We know that here and elsewhere, many thousands of fishes and millions of invertebrates use offshore rigs as marine habitat. Working with state fisheries agencies, energy companies have converted decommissioned oil and gas platforms into manmade reefs in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, Brunei and Malaysia.</p><p>Californians <a href="https://theconversation.com/coastal-protection-on-the-edge-the-challenge-of-preserving-californias-legacy-76927" target="_blank">prize their spectacular coastline</a>, and there are <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060034680" target="_blank">disagreements over the rigs-to-reefs concept</a>. Some <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/conservation" target="_self">conservation</a> groups assert that abandoned oil rigs could <a href="https://www.surfrider.org/coastal-blog/entry/rigs-to-grief-a-bad-oil-bill-stopped" target="_blank">release toxic chemicals into the water</a> and create underwater hazards. In contrast, supporters say the submerged sections have become <a href="https://www.change.org/p/support-the-rigs-to-reefs-program-in-california" target="_blank">productive reefs that should be left in place</a>.</p><p>We are a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=nWPT_lEAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">former research scientist for the U.S. Department of the Interior</a> and a scholar focusing on the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C22&q=MS+Love&btnG=" target="_blank">fishes of the Pacific coast</a>. In a recent study, we reviewed the history of rigs-to-reefs conversions and decades of published scientific research monitoring the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.10.024" target="_blank">effects of these projects</a>. Based on this record, we conclude that reefing the habitat under decommissioned oil and gas platforms is a viable option for California. It also could serve as a model for decommissioning some of the 7,500 other offshore platforms operating around the world.</p>
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<h2>Unplanned Underwater Communities</h2><p>Offshore petroleum platforms are designed to withstand hurricanes and earthquakes, but not to be permanent. When they reach the end of their useful lives, typically after about 25 to 50 years of operation, federal and state law require energy companies to decommission them.</p><p>This usually means completely removing the platform and submerged supporting structure and returning the seafloor to an unobstructed condition. Only in certain cases does any part of the platform remain.</p><p>These rigs weren't designed with the intent of creating reefs, but their underwater steel pipe support systems – called "jackets" in the oil business – attract vast numbers of invertebrates that settle on them. In turn, these creatures attract diverse fish species. Together these colonies create reef systems that can resist rusting away for several hundred years.</p><p>Off California, a myriad of invertebrates coat each platform jacket. Millions of mussels, sea stars and brightly colored anemones fight for space, creating a quilt of patterns and textures. Both large and small fishes are also abundant. In some years, clouds of hundreds of thousands of juvenile rockfishes school in the depths below operating oil platforms.</p>
<h2>Creating New Habitat</h2><p>Humans have sought to enhance fisheries with artificial reefs for centuries, using materials ranging from wood, rock and concrete to <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/artificial-reef.html" target="_blank">decommissioned ships</a>. The idea of reefing platform jackets developed after oil and gas companies started building platforms in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 1940s. Those steel-pipe structures provided rock-hard habitat for reef fishes on an otherwise smooth seafloor, and became highly popular fishing destinations.</p><p>Installing thousands of platforms catalyzed a basin-wide increase in available reef fish species, such as the highly prized red snapper. Reef fishes moved into areas where they had previously been scarce due to a <a href="https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/11.-Prof.-Richard-MCLAUGHLIN-_Idle-Iron_-versus-_Rigs-to-Reefs_-Surviving-Conflicting-Policy-Mandates-in-the-Gulf-of-Mexico.pdf" target="_blank">lack of hard habitat</a>.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTQ5NjQ1NS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY1MDc4MTcyMH0.vb6jFLHJZCWmVVFpscVmdTflk8izdb8V2AhsZWEfnio/img.jpg?width=980" id="d5472" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="6fbf6091e90d12bac7b721565bdc1d10" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
A marine biologist surveys fishes living at Platform A, Santa Barbara Channel, Calif.
Desmond Ho, CC BY-ND
<p>In the mid-1980s Louisiana legislated the <a href="http://www.wlf.louisiana.gov/fishing/artificial-reef-program" target="_blank">first U.S. reefing option</a> for its offshore waters. This program was designed to take advantage of fishing opportunities provided by obsolete platforms and encourage energy companies to convert decommissioned platforms into reefs. Since then, over 500 submerged jackets in the Gulf, from Texas to Alabama, have been adapted into state artificial reef programs.</p><p>Platforms generally consist of two distinct parts: the topside, or operational facilities seen above water, and the substructure, or parts below the water. To make a reef, energy companies completely remove the topside and transfer it to shore for recycling or partial reuse. In the Gulf of Mexico and elsewhere, they may tow the underwater jacket to a new location; topple it onto the seabed; or cut off the top portion and <a href="https://www.bsee.gov/what-we-do/environmental-focuses/rigs-to-reefs#3" target="_blank">place it on the seabed next to the lower portion</a>.</p><p>California law only allows partial removal, or cutting off of the top portion. That way the underwater jacket remains intact and in place, which is the least destructive method for the reef.</p>
<h2>Helping or Hurting Sea Life?</h2><p>Across the Gulf of Mexico, reefed oil platforms have significantly increased the amount of available reef fish. Many have become popular <a href="https://www.saltstrong.com/articles/texas-fishing-reef-gps-coordinates/" target="_blank">fishing</a> and <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/gulf-mexicos-hottest-diving-spots-are-decommissioned-oil-rigs-180971728/" target="_blank">scuba diving</a> sites. In California most operating platforms are not fished, so they have functioned for decades as de facto Marine Protected Areas, providing ecological benefits for severely overfished species.</p><p>For example, scientists have found greater numbers of adult fish of some species, such as cowcod and bocaccio rockfishes, under platforms than on natural reefs. More adults capable of spawning makes it likely that more larvae will be released into the ecosystem from species under platforms than from smaller numbers on nearby natural areas that are fished.</p><p>Although some platforms have been installed and removed off of southern California, none have been reefed. Discussion of reefing, supported by many years of scientific studies in California waters, led to enactment of the <a href="https://law.justia.com/codes/california/2016/code-fgc/division-6/part-1/chapter-5.5/article-2/" target="_blank">2010 Marine Resources Legacy Act</a>, which authorized the rigs-to-reefs concept. Now Platform Holly in state waters and Platforms Grace, Gail, Hermosa, Hildago and Harvest in federal waters are undergoing initial steps for decommissioning.</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8xOTQ5NjU2Ny9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY2MjA4NzQ4N30.6gxgYBpirRpA25gInokyP56A4IMw-wN_x0mvlYDR3dM/img.jpg?width=980" id="5b7d0" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="4cf306e9dbe1af9f3cf71bbb6d5bfe9e" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
Platform Holly in California's Santa Barbara Channel is one of the rigs scheduled for near-term decommissioning.
State Lands Commission via AP
<p>This process is expensive, technically complex and lengthy. Because it requires intricate planning, oil companies are likely to consider decommissioning more platforms while they are already organizing equipment, engineering and infrastructure acquisition for the current set. Although industry will save money if a platform is reefed, the savings must be shared with the state. Reefing thus could generate funds for other marine conservation efforts.</p><p>Either total or partial decommissioning will have many environmental and socioeconomic impacts, both positive and negative. Californians have not had an opportunity to consider what should happen to decommissioned oil platforms since the mid-1990s. Now citizens have an opportunity to consider the issues again, and decide the fate of an unintended but biologically important resource.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">This Robot Is Delivering Coral Babies to the Great Barrier Reef <a href="https://t.co/CIookPhPer">https://t.co/CIookPhPer</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Coral?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Coral</a></p>— Enviro Voter Project (@Enviro_Voter) <a href="https://twitter.com/Enviro_Voter/status/1084500719632347137?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">January 13, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
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<em>Ann Scarborough Bull is a visiting researcher at the Marine Science institute, University of California, Santa Barbara.<br/>
</em><em>Milton Love is a research biologist at the Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara.</em>
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<em><em>Disclosure statement: Ann Scarborough Bull received funding for the study described in this article from ExxonMobil Upstream Research. Milton Love received research funding for the study described in this article from ExxonMobil Upstream Research, and has received grants from numerous government agencies and foundations.</em></em></p><p><em><em>Reposted with permission from our media associate <a href="https://theconversation.com/retired-oil-rigs-off-the-california-coast-could-find-new-lives-as-artificial-reefs-111892" target="_blank">The Conversation</a>.</em></em></p><script async="async" data-counter="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111892/count?distributor=republish-lightbox-advanced" id="theconversation_tracker_hook" src="https://theconversation.com/javascripts/lib/content_tracker_hook.js" type="text/javascript"></script>From Your Site Articles
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