Cryptococcus yeasts (pictured), including ones that are hybrids, can cause life-threatening infections in primarily immunocompromised people. KATERYNA KON/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY / Getty Images
By Jacob L. Steenwyk and Antonis Rokas
From the mythical minotaur to the mule, creatures created from merging two or more distinct organisms – hybrids – have played defining roles in human history and culture. However, not all hybrids are as fantastic as the minotaur or as dependable as the mule; in fact, some of them cause human diseases.
<p>We are evolutionary biologists who are trying to understand <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1008315" target="_blank">why certain fungi infect</a> hundreds of thousands of patients each year while others are harmless. We are particularly interested in infections caused by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.021" target="_blank"><em>Aspergillus</em> fungi</a>, a group of molds – multicellular fungi that typically grow by forming networks of hairlike filaments – that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00140-18" target="_blank">cause very serious infections in patients with weak immune systems</a>. While examining <em>Aspergillus</em> strains isolated from patients with lung-related diseases, we unexpectedly discovered <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.071" target="_blank">an <em>Aspergillus</em> hybrid</a> that infects humans. This finding is significant not only because this is the first known example of a hybrid mold infecting humans but also because accurate identification of the species causing disease is key for managing fungal infections.</p>
When Looking Through a Microscope Isn’t Close Enough.
<p>For the last few years, <a href="http://www.rokaslab.org/" target="_blank">our team at Vanderbilt University</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/lab/Gustavo-Goldman-Lab" target="_blank">Gustavo Goldman's team at São Paulo University in Brazil</a> and many other collaborators around the world have been collecting samples of fungi from patients infected with different species of <em>Aspergillus</em> molds. One of the species we are particularly interested in is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/rwgn.2001.0082" target="_blank"><em>Aspergillus nidulans</em>, a relatively common and generally harmless fungus</a>. Clinical laboratories typically identify the species of <em>Aspergillus</em> causing the infection by examining cultures of the fungi under the microscope. The problem with this approach is that very closely related species of <em>Aspergillus</em> tend to look very similar in their broad morphology or physical appearance when viewing them through a microscope.</p><p>Interested in examining the varying abilities of different <em>A. nidulans</em> strains to cause disease, we decided to analyze their total genetic content, or genomes. What we saw came as a total surprise. We had not collected <em>A. nidulans</em> but <em>Aspergillus latus</em>, a close relative of <em>A. nidulans</em> and, as we were to soon find out, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.071" target="_blank">a hybrid species that evolved through the fusion of the genomes</a> of two other <em>Aspergillus</em> species: <em>Aspergillus spinulosporus</em> and an unknown close relative of <em>Aspergillus quadrilineatus</em>. Thus, we realized not only that these patients harbored infections from an entirely different species than we thought they were, but also that this species was the first ever <em>Aspergillus</em> hybrid known to cause human infections.</p>Several Different Fungal Hybrids Cause Human Disease.
<p>Hybrid fungi that can cause infections in humans are well known to occur in several different lineages of single-celled fungi known as yeasts. Notable examples include multiple different species of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.3242" target="_blank">yeast hybrids</a> that cause the human diseases <a href="https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6218/cryptococcosis" target="_blank">cryptococcosis</a> and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/index.html" target="_blank">candidiasis</a>. Although pathogenic yeast hybrids are well known, our discovery that the <em>A. latus</em> pathogen is a hybrid is a first for molds that cause disease in humans.</p><img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzM3NDk4Mi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyMTIwOTgyOX0.gCsk3b5GHdZq78oT3M2ajq3QYT9i-PrLNjoxB6AF1Dg/img.jpg?width=980" id="365cb" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="e1f11ec0f5a0b5a5bc3a94b1fa86bd97" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
(Left) Candida yeasts live on parts of the human body. Imbalance of microbes on the body can allow these yeasts, some of which are hybrids, to grow and cause infection. (Right) Cryptococcus yeasts, including ones that are hybrids, can cause life-threatening infections in primarily immunocompromised people. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1008315" target="_blank">Why certain <em>Aspergillus</em> species are so deadly</a> while others are harmless remains unknown. This may in part be because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2007.02.007" target="_blank">combinations of traits, rather than individual traits</a>, underlie organisms' ability to cause disease. So why then are hybrids frequently associated with human disease? Hybrids inherit genetic material from both parents, which may result in new combinations of traits. This may make them more similar to one parent in some of their characteristics, reflect both parents in others or may differ from both in the rest. It is precisely this mix and match of traits that hybrids have inherited from their parental species that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/14/science/14creatures.html" target="_blank">facilitates their evolutionary success</a>, including their ability to cause disease.</p>The Evolutionary Origin of an Aspergillus Hybrid.
<p>Multiple evolutionary paths can lead to the emergence of hybrids. One path is through mating, just as the horse and donkey mate to create a mule. Another path is through the merging or fusion of genetic material from cells of different species.</p><p>It is this second path that appears to have been taken by our fungus. <em>A. latus</em> appears to have two of almost everything compared to its parental species: twice the genome size, twice the total number of genes and so on. But unlike other hybrids, which are often sterile like the mule, we found that <em>A. latus</em> is capable of reproducing both asexually and sexually.</p><p>But how distinct were the parents of <em>A. latus</em>? By comparing the parts contributed by each parent in the <em>A. latus</em> genome, we estimate that its parents are approximately 93% genetically similar, which is about as related as we humans are with lemurs. In other words, <em>A. latus</em>, an agent of infectious disease, is the fungal equivalent of a human-lemur hybrid.</p>How A. Latus Differs From its Parents.
<p>Elucidating the identity of closely related fungal pathogens and how they differ from each other in infection-relevant characteristics is a key step toward reducing the burden of fungal disease. For example, we found that <em>A. latus</em> was three times more resistant than <em>A. nidulans</em>, the species it was originally identified as using microscopy-based methods, to one of the most common antifungal drugs, <a href="https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00520" target="_blank">caspofungin</a>. This result provides a clear example of the potential importance of accurate identification of the <em>Aspergillus</em> pathogen causing an infection.</p><p>We also examined how <em>A. latus</em> and <em>A. nidulans</em> interact with cells from our immune system. We found that immune cells were less efficient at combating <em>A. latus</em> compared to <em>A. nidulans</em>, suggesting the hybrid fungus may be trickier for our immune systems to identify and destroy.</p><p>In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, our quest to understand <em>Aspergillus</em> pathogens is becoming more urgent. Growing evidence suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13096" target="_blank">a fraction of COVID-19 patients are also infected with <em>Aspergillus</em>.</a> More worrying is that these <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2607.201603" target="_blank">secondary <em>Aspergillus</em> infections</a> can worsen the clinical outcomes for those infected with the novel coronavirus. That being said, we stress that little is known about <em>Aspergillus</em> infections in COVID-19 patients due to a lack of systematic testing, and none of the infections identified so far appear to have been caused by hybrids.</p><p>So, when it comes to hybrids, some are fantastic (the minotaur), some are helpful (the mule) and some are dangerous (<em>Aspergillus latus</em>). Understanding more about the biology of <em>Aspergillus latus</em> may help in our understanding of how microbial pathogens arise and how to best prevent and combat their infections.</p>
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Experts are worried that COVID-19, a primarily respiratory and airway disease, could have permanent effects on lungs, inhibiting the ability for divers to continue diving. Tiffany Duong / Ocean Rebels
Scuba divers around the world are holding their metaphorical breath to see if a coronavirus infection affects the ability to dive.
<p>Some preliminary data, while inconclusive, indicates that permanent lung damage can occur even in mild cases. All experts are advocating for further studies to examine potential permanent effects.</p><p>"Like other respiratory illnesses, COVID-19 can cause lasting lung damage," said Dr. Matias Nochetto, director of medical service at Divers Alert Network (DAN). The doctor addressed the fears of many scuba divers in a <a href="https://www.facebook.com/DiversAlertNetwork/videos/691682591631410" target="_blank">company webinar</a> on diving after a COVID-19 infection.</p>
<p>Joseph Dituri, the principal investigator in a study to use hyperbaric medicine to treat coronavirus patients, explained to EcoWatch that lung cells are damaged by both the coronavirus infection and the body's inflammatory reaction to it, reducing lung function and gas exchange capabilities. Nochetto noted in the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/DiversAlertNetwork/videos/691682591631410" target="_blank">webinar</a> that the inflammation causes leakage of fluid and pus into the lungs that can result in irreparable <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/covid-19-recovered-patients-have-partially-reduced-lung-function/a-52859671" target="_blank">lung scarring and damage</a>.</p><p>"This is not good for anyone's lungs, let alone diving," the doctor added. "There is no proof that any lungs have fully recovered from COVID-19. Everyone that has had COVID so far, even if they had COVID in January, their lungs are likely still recovering, so it is too soon to say if they are or are not gonna be able to dive."</p>
<img lazy-loadable="true" src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzM3NDA3MC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYwMjcxOTg2Mn0.zzMhWKDnhrVtj9HFXefdjLWW1bKKO9Kh3AZCLu-J3kA/img.png?width=980" id="49f9e" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="c47b0ecdd76153f9ce088ef76fba00eb" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />
DAN medical experts explained the difference between normal lungs, on the left, and "very serious lungs caused by COVID-19," on the right. Matias Nochetto / Divers Alert Network (DAN)
<p>An April 15 report from Austria put the dive world on high alert. Dr. Frank Hartig treated six infected divers who only suffered mild symptoms, were not hospitalized and recovered at home, reported <a href="https://www.caymancompass.com/2020/04/24/divers-face-long-term-health-impact-from-covid-19/?fbclid=IwAR1RQXV50frrwU3YnG8Qh12oMQ0m1l9iJ61eanApvk7_twmqduOsKwNgbEs" target="_blank">Cayman Compass</a>.</p><p>Although "clinically recovered," all six patients exhibited "irreversible" long-term lung damage which made a full recovery "unlikely," Hartig said. Two exhibited asthmatic-like, irritated lungs, two suffered low oxygen supplies, and four showed "significant changes" to lung structure, reported <a href="https://www.caymancompass.com/2020/04/24/divers-face-long-term-health-impact-from-covid-19/?fbclid=IwAR1RQXV50frrwU3YnG8Qh12oMQ0m1l9iJ61eanApvk7_twmqduOsKwNgbEs" target="_blank">Cayman Compass</a>.</p><p>"None of the six divers can be released for diving for the time being, despite their well-being," Hartig said, reported <a href="http://divemagazine.co.uk/skills/8907-serious-problems-diving-after-covid19" target="_blank">Dive Magazine</a>.</p>
<p>The doctor said that patients who felt fully recovered could still suffer lung damage which could permanently prohibit scuba diving and other forms of exercise. He implored dive professionals like dive instructors and commercial divers to avoid contracting the disease at all costs.</p><p>In a <a href="https://www.uhms.org/images/Position-Statements/Return_to_Diving_Post_COVID-19_Final_NB_4-27-2020.pdf" target="_blank">responsive position statement</a>, the <a href="https://www.uhms.org/" target="_blank">Undersea Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)</a> called the findings "generalized" and "premature." The medical society emphasized, "At the present time, we simply do not have sufficient data to support or refute the definitive proclamations made by this case series." UHMS, the primary source of scientific information regarding diving, noted that more time and studies are needed to accurately access the potential impact of the disease on individuals' health and ability to dive.</p><p>UHMS also highlighted that COVID-19 shares many features with other serious viral pneumonia, including requiring a "weeks or months" period of convalescence before returning to full activities, including diving.</p>
<p>In their <a href="https://www.facebook.com/DiversAlertNetwork/videos/691682591631410" target="_blank">webinar</a>, DAN's doctors similarly did not set a specific timeline for a return to diving after infection, instead advocating for individual medical assessments and fitness tests by doctors trained in dive medicine to uncover potential residual issues. Chief Medical Officer Dr. Jim Chimiak emphasized the need to evaluate any residual damage to lung structure and function due to coronavirus before considering diving again.</p><p>"It's never bad to be conservative especially as you return to diving after a long delay," he said. "It's not automatically sating you can no longer dive, but it needs to be assessed on a case by case basis."</p><p>Dr. Douglas Ebersole, a cardiology consultant for DAN, avid tech diver and recovering COVID-19 patient, agreed that there was no "one size fits all" answer to when divers who have been infected with coronavirus can safely return to the sport, reported <a href="https://www.divetech.com/post/diving-in-the-era-of-covid-19" target="_blank">Dive Tech</a>.</p><p>Ebersole agreed with UHMS and DAN that it was too early to conclude whether infections could lead to permanent, sidelining injuries, but compared the coronavirus to its close viral cousin, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). A 2004 study found that half of "recovered" SARS patients exhibited pulmonary function defects three months after hospital discharge, but that impairment was "mild" in most cases, Ebersole wrote.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sbmhs-bvoog.be/2020%200412%20Position%20of%20the%20BVOOG.pdf" target="_blank">Belgian Society for Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine</a> said in a statement, "A person who has had COVID-19 infection with severe pulmonary symptoms may suffer from prolonged or even permanent pulmonary damage, even if the lung function seems to have returned to (near) normal," putting them at higher risk for lung barotrauma injuries.</p><p>The society recommending that infected, symptomatic divers wait two to three months after recovery and undergo complete pulmonary function testing, CT lung scanning, cardiac evaluations and exercise tests before attempting to dive again.</p><p>"There's no one fully recovered," Chimiak concluded. "Stay tuned. It's a new disease. I think this story is not over; the book has not been written."</p>
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Students walk by a sign reading "Climate Change" at the Doctor Tolosa Latour public school in Madrid, Spain on Sept. 9, 2014. In the U.S., New Jersey will be the first state to make the climate crisis part of its curriculum for all K-12 students. PIERRE-PHILIPPE MARCOU / AFP via Getty Images
New Jersey has invested in the future health of the planet by making sure the next generation of adults knows how human activity has had a deleterious effect on the planet. The state will be the first in the nation to make the climate crisis as part of its curriculum for all students, from kindergarten all the way to 12th grade, as NorthJersey.com reported.
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">BIG NEWS: <a href="https://twitter.com/GovMurphy?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@GovMurphy</a> and I are proud to announce that New Jersey is the FIRST STATE IN THE NATION to incorporate climate change education across our K-12 learning standards – preparing our students for the future green economy.🌎 <a href="https://t.co/SJ2NS8DtWh">pic.twitter.com/SJ2NS8DtWh</a></p>— Tammy Murphy (@FirstLadyNJ) <a href="https://twitter.com/FirstLadyNJ/status/1268285809611816961?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">June 3, 2020</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>The Garden State's Board of Education adopted the standards on Wednesday, with the intention of implementing them for the start of school in September 2021.</p><p>The move drew praise from former Vice President Al Gore, who said in a statement, according to <a href="https://www.nj.com/news/2020/06/nj-schools-will-teach-climate-change-education-with-new-curriculum.html" target="_blank">NJ.com</a>: "I am incredibly proud that New Jersey is the first state in the nation to fully integrate climate education in their K-12 curricula. This initiative is vitally important to our students as they are the leaders of tomorrow, and we will depend on their leadership and knowledge to combat this crisis."</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.nj.com/news/2020/06/nj-schools-will-teach-climate-change-education-with-new-curriculum.html" target="_blank">NJ.com</a> reported, the <a href="https://www.nj.gov/education/cccs/2020/" target="_blank">New Jersey Student Learning Standards</a>, which outline what is taught in New Jersey's public schools, now include language that requires <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/climate-change">climate change</a> education across seven areas: 21st Century Life and Careers, Comprehensive Health and Physical Education, Science, Social Studies, Technology, Visual and Performing Arts, and World Languages.</p><p>The move makes New Jersey the first in what is likely to be a nationwide trend. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/04/22/714262267/most-teachers-dont-teach-climate-change-4-in-5-parents-wish-they-did" target="_blank">According to a NPR/Ipsos poll published last year</a>, more than 80 percent of American parents and nearly 90 percent of American teachers said that climate change should be taught in schools.</p>
<p>New Jersey's First Lady Tammy Murphy had pushed for the change and was thankful to the board for the initiative on Wednesday, saying that it is a symbol of the state's commitment to the health and well-being of future generations.</p><p>"The adoption of these standards is much more than an added educational requirement; it is a symbol of a partnership between generations," said Murphy, in a statement, as <a href="https://patch.com/new-jersey/wyckoff/new-jersey-curriculum-feature-climate-change-education" target="_blank">Patch</a> reported.</p><p>"Decades of short-sighted decision-making has fueled this crisis and now we must do all we can to help our children solve it. This generation of students will feel the effects of climate change more than any other, and it is critical that every student is provided an opportunity to study and understand the climate crisis through a comprehensive, interdisciplinary lens," her statement added.</p><p>The release noted that climate change standards have also been added to the appendices of the math and English language arts guidelines, which are up for review in 2022, according to <a href="https://patch.com/new-jersey/wyckoff/new-jersey-curriculum-feature-climate-change-education" target="_blank">Patch</a>.</p>
<p>Governor Phil Murphy first announced the future curriculum change in his State of the State speech in January, saying that it was a cornerstone of his clean energy push, according to <a href="https://www.northjersey.com/story/news/environment/2020/06/03/nj-becomes-first-state-require-climate-change-k-12-curriculum/3136671001/" target="_blank">NorthJersey.com</a>.</p><p>Murphy said in a statement that the new standards will prepare a new generation for an economy that will be shaped by impacts from the climate crisis, particularly the energy sector.</p><p>"A top priority of my Administration has been to reestablish New Jersey's role as a leader in the fight against climate change," Murphy said in the statement, as <a href="https://www.nj.com/news/2020/06/nj-schools-will-teach-climate-change-education-with-new-curriculum.html" target="_blank">NJ.com</a> reported. "The adoption of these standards across our K-12 schools is an important step forward that will strengthen the future of New Jersey's green energy economy."</p>
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Smoke rises from a cement factory in Castleton in the High Peak district of Derbyshire, England. john finney photography / Moment / Getty Images
Human activity has pushed atmospheric carbon dioxide to higher levels today than they have been at any other point in the last 23-million-years, potentially posing unprecedented disruptions in ecosystems across the planet, new research suggests.
<p>Understanding atmospheric concentrations of CO2 is "vital for understanding Earth's climate system" because it "imparts a controlling effect on global temperatures," said scientists in a study published in <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/doi/10.1130/G47681.1/586769/A-23-m-y-record-of-low-atmospheric-CO2" target="_blank"><em>Geology</em></a>.</p><p>Climate change is largely driven by a disproportionate increase of CO2 in the atmosphere largely resulting from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas as well as cutting down or burning forests that serve as carbon stores, according to the <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/why-does-co2-get-more-attention-other-gases" target="_blank">Union of Concerned Scientists</a>. A 2013 study published by the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/" target="_blank">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> found that climate change from CO2 and greenhouse gas emission is not only caused by humans but has had "widespread impacts on human and natural systems."</p>
<p>Previous measurements have turned to ice cores to determine CO2 levels present in the atmosphere throughout Earth's history, but have only pieced together the last 800,000 years. To expand upon this record, researchers at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette used fossilized remains of ancient plant tissue to produce a record of atmospheric CO2 dating back 31 million years of "uninterrupted Earth history."</p><p>As plants grow, the amount of two stable carbon isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-13, change in response to CO2 levels in the atmosphere. With this in mind, the research team measured the relative amount of these carbon isotopes in fossil plant materials from 700 measurements, published in 12 studies, characterizing ancient plants and their lipids in order to calculate concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere during the timeframe that the plants grew.</p>
<p>This atmospheric "timeline" did not show fluctuations in CO2 that are comparable to increases seen in the last century. In fact, the highest concentrations of CO2 were found during the Miocene, between 5 and 23 million years ago, but were still determined to have been below present-day levels.</p><p>"These data suggest present-day CO2 exceeds the highest levels that Earth experienced at least since the Miocene, further highlighting the present-day disruption of long-established CO2 trends within Earth's atmosphere," write the study authors in <em>Geology</em>.</p>
<p>The abrupt increase of greenhouse gas distribution today is unprecedented in Earth's 23-million-year history, indicating that ecosystems and global temperatures may be more sensitive to smaller changes in CO2 levels than previously thought. Though CO2 levels have varied widely throughout Earth's history, researchers believe that they have never fluctuated nor been as high as in recent years.</p><p>"One of the most pressing messages that climate scientists attempt to convey to the public is that current CO2 is elevated compared to the geological past," write the study authors, adding that the results also indirectly imply that major changes in plant and early humans were not driven by large changes in CO2 but rather "relatively small-amplitude changes."</p>
<p>Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by more than one-third since the Industrial Revolution began, according to <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/" target="_blank">NASA</a>. Though the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51281986" target="_blank">BBC</a> reports "worst-case scenario" for emissions of CO2 in the 21st century is considered unlikely by researchers, scientists still expect a rise of around 3 degrees Celsius by 2100, according to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/15/worst-case-scenario-2050-climate-crisis-future-we-choose-christiana-figueres-tom-rivett-carnac" target="_blank">The Guardian</a> — 1.5 degrees Celsius above goals set forth by the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/negotiations/paris_en" target="_blank">Paris agreement</a>. A report published by the <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide" target="_blank">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> earlier this year corroborates the findings, confirming that CO2 levels in 2018 were higher than at any other point in the past 800,000 years. The last time amounts were this high was more than 3 million years ago, when global temperatures were between 3.6 and 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit higher than during the pre-industrial era, and sea level was 50 to 80 feet higher than today.</p>
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The sun shines over the Southern Ocean in Antarctica. Rebecca Yale / Moment / Getty Images Plus
Atmospheric researchers have pinpointed the spot on Earth with the cleanest air. It's not in the midst of a remote jungle, nor on a deserted tropical island. Instead, the cleanest air in the world is in the air above the frigid Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica, as CNN reported.
<p>Air pollution is a global public health problem that claims 7 million lives every year, stunts the growth of children, and increases the risk of heart disease, stroke and pulmonary disorders. So, if you're seeking the cleanest air in the world, you will need to pack a very warm coat.</p><p>The Southern Ocean that surrounds Antarctica has the air that shows the smallest concentration of particles caused by human pollution. The first of its kind study of the bioaerosol composition of the Southern Ocean was conducted by researchers from Colorado State University, according to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/02/world/cleanest-air-intl-scli-scn-climate/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a>.</p>
<p>The study, which described the air as "truly pristine," was published Monday in the journal of the <em><a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2020/05/28/2000134117" target="_blank">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></em>.</p><p>The researchers noted that the air that forms the lower clouds in the area was free from any particles produced by man-made activity or dust from other continents.</p>
<p>The study sampling of the air was taken from a research ship that sailed from Tasmania to within 24 miles of the Antarctic ice edge to conduct "bacterial profiling" from air filter samples. The scientists were surprised to find that the air was so clear there was barely any bacterial DNA to profile, according to <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/antarctica-scientists-reveal-location-of-worlds-cleanest-air-11999692#:~:text=Experts%20say%20Antarctica%20appears%20isolated,other%20continents%20to%20the%20north.&text=The%20world's%20cleanest%20air%20is,pristine%22%20and%20unaffected%20by%20pollution." target="_blank">Sky News</a>.</p><p>"We were able to use the bacteria in the air over the Southern Ocean (SO) as a diagnostic tool to infer key properties of the lower atmosphere," said Thomas Hill, a researcher in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at Colorado State University and a coauthor on the study, in a university <a href="https://engr.source.colostate.edu/csu-atmospheric-scientists-identify-cleanest-air-on-earth-in-first-of-its-kind-study/" target="_blank">statement</a>.</p>
<p>Hill went on to explain how the airborne bacteria is a diagnostic tool to infer the properties of the lower atmosphere.</p><p>"For example, that the aerosols controlling the properties of SO clouds are strongly linked to ocean biological processes, and that Antarctica appears to be isolated from southward dispersal of microorganisms and nutrient deposition from southern continents. Overall, it suggests that the SO is one of very few places on Earth that has been minimally affected by anthropogenic activities," he added.</p>
<p>The scientists analyzed the structure of the airborne microbes, which are dispersed by the wind and travel thousands of miles. The researchers looked at the microbes' DNA, tracked their sources, and analyzed wind trajectories to see where they came from. The microbes they analyzed around Antarctica were from the ocean as opposed to from an airborne pollutant like coal emissions, according to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/02/world/cleanest-air-intl-scli-scn-climate/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a>.</p><p>According to the university <a href="https://engr.source.colostate.edu/csu-atmospheric-scientists-identify-cleanest-air-on-earth-in-first-of-its-kind-study/" target="_blank">statement</a>, the bacterial composition of the microbes also was differentiated into broad latitudinal zones, which suggested that aerosols from distant land masses and human activities, such as pollution or soil emissions driven by land use change, were not traveling south into Antarctic air.</p>
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People sit in circles to observe social distance in Domino Park amid the coronavirus pandemic on May 21, 2020 in New York City. New research says preventative measures such as social distancing and wearing face masks should not be relaxed as temperatures warm up. Alexi Rosenfeld / Getty Images
Researchers have found that warm temperatures in the U.S. this summer are unlikely to stop the coronavirus that causes the infectious disease COVID-19, according to a new study published in the journal Clinical Infectious Disease.
<p>The findings of the scientists refute <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/08/health/coronavirus-stays-warmer-weather/index.html" target="_blank">President Trump's claim</a> in March that "when it gets a little warmer [the virus] miraculously goes away." It also refutes his insistence in April, when he cited <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/trump-says-coronavirus-could-be-thwarted-by-summer-heat-citing-dhs-study-2020-04-23" target="_blank">Department of Homeland Security data</a>, that summer heat will kill the virus, which led him to wonder about shining a UV light inside the body or injecting disinfectant into the bloodstream, both of which are extremely dangerous.</p>
<p>While the flu is seasonal, researchers who have tested the coronavirus in the lab found that the coronavirus is sensitive to heat and light, but those are at extremes. Summer temperatures may account for a slight decline in cases, but nothing that will allow us to return to normal or kill the virus, as <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/coronavirus-spread-warm-summer-weather-america-study-1507994" target="_blank">Newsweek</a> reported.</p><p>"There is an association between temperature and rate of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 virus which may result in modest decline in the community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 with warmer weather," the researchers wrote in their conclusion, according to <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/coronavirus-spread-warm-summer-weather-america-study-1507994" target="_blank">Newsweek</a>. "This effect is modest, however, and is unlikely to slow down disease spread if containment measures are relaxed."</p>
<p>Higher humidity and warmer temperatures seem to make the virus less stable. In warmer temperatures, the small virus-bearing droplets sent into the air by a cough or sneeze are more likely to attract water vapor, become heavier and drop out of the air before infecting someone. The opposite happens during colder, drier conditions when the droplets are lighter and stay airborne for longer, as <a href="https://www.pix11.com/news/coronavirus/harvard-study-says-warm-weather-probably-wont-slow-covid-19-transmission" target="_blank">WPIX</a> in New York reported.</p>
<p>Co-author Dr. Shiv T. Sehra, assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, said in a statement, according to <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/coronavirus-spread-warm-summer-weather-america-study-1507994" target="_blank">Newsweek</a>: "While the rate of virus transmission may slow down as the maximum daily temperature rises to around 50 degrees [Farenheit], the effects of temperature rise beyond that don't seem to be significant.</p><p>"Based on our analysis, the modest association suggests that it is unlikely that disease transmission will slow dramatically in the summer months from the increase in temperature alone."</p><p>The team, led by Harvard researchers, says the findings are evidence we should not forego preventative measures such as social distancing and wearing face masks just because the temperature has warmed up, as the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-8380465/Warmer-weather-NOT-stop-spread-virus-without-social-distancing.html" target="_blank">Daily Mail</a> reported.</p>
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Several drugmakers and research institutions are working on vaccines, antivirals and other treatments to help people infected with COVID-19. krisanapong detraphiphat / Moment / Getty Images
Researchers at the pharmaceutical giant Eli Lilly announced yesterday that it will start a trial on a new drug designed specifically for COVID-19, a milestone in the race to stop the infectious disease, according to STAT News.
<p>The early-stage trial is the world's first for an antibody treatment that specifically targets the novel coronavirus. Eli Lilly is one of the several drugmakers and research institutions working on <a href="http://www.ecowatch.com/tag/vaccines" target="_self">vaccines</a>, antivirals and other treatments to help people infected with the virus that has already killed over 370,000 worldwide, as <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-lilly-treatments/eli-lilly-starts-human-study-of-potential-covid-19-treatment-idUSKBN23825Y" target="_blank">Reuters</a> reported.</p><p>The treatment that Eli Lilly will test uses an antibody that was developed using a blood sample from one of the first U.S. patients to recover from coronavirus. As <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/500425-eli-lilly-gives-patients-first-doses-in-trial-of-new-coronavirus-treatment" target="_blank">The Hill</a> noted, antibody treatments that are developed specifically to fight COVID-19 show promise as effective treatments. The drug remdesivir, which has been touted as a potential treatment, already existed and was repurposed to help patients with COVID-19. In trials so far, it has shown moderate results as it slightly shortened the time that patients were infected.</p>
<p>The first phase of the trial will test if the therapy is safe and well-tolerated with results expected later this month. The first COVID-19 patients to receive the new drug are hospitalized at New York University's Grossman School of Medicine in New York, Cedars-Sinai in Los Angeles, and Emory University in Atlanta, Eli Lilly told <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/01/health/eli-lilly-antibody-therapy-human-trial-covid-19/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a>.</p><p>The trial will test for side effects and is only being tested in 32 people at the various sites.</p><p>The company said that if the trial shows the medicine is effective against COVID-19, it may be fast tracked through the regulatory process and be available by the autumn, as <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/01/health/eli-lilly-antibody-therapy-human-trial-covid-19/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a> reported.</p>
<p>"Until now, scientists have been trying to repurpose medicines, drugs, that were designed for new diseases to see if they work in COVID-19, but as soon as this epidemic started, we got to work making a new medicine against this disease," said Dr. Dan Skovronsky, Eli Lilly's senior vice president and chief scientific officer, as <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/01/health/eli-lilly-antibody-therapy-human-trial-covid-19/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a> reported. "Now we're ready and testing it in patients."</p><p>While Indianapolis-based Eli Lilly is developing the drug, the medicine was actually discovered by a Vancouver company, AbCellera. Other companies are also working on developing an antibody drug, too. Biotech firm Regeneron expects to begin a test soon as does a partnership of Vir Biotechnology and GlaxoSmithKline, according to <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/01/eli-lilly-begins-first-human-tests-of-an-antibody-drug-against-covid-19/" target="_blank">STAT News</a>.</p><p>"We're not racing against each other," said Skovronsky of the other companies, as <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/r/entryeditor/STAT%20News" target="_self">STAT News</a> reported. "We're racing against the death toll from the virus. I hope there will be multiple successful [antibody drugs]. I expect there will be."</p>
<p>Regeneron Pharmaceuticals has said it plans to start clinical studies in June to test its antibody cocktail treatment and is aiming to have hundreds of thousands of preventative doses available by the end of August, according to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-lilly-treatments/eli-lilly-starts-human-study-of-potential-covid-19-treatment-idUSKBN23825Y" target="_blank">Reuters</a>.</p><p>Lilly's treatment is designed to block it from locking on to human cells, thus neutralizing the virus, as <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-lilly-treatments/eli-lilly-starts-human-study-of-potential-covid-19-treatment-idUSKBN23825Y" target="_blank">Reuters</a> reported.</p><p>Scientists at AbCellera and the Vaccine Research Center at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases selected the specific antibodies they thought would be most potent. Then Lilly scientists engineered the treatment, known as a monoclonal antibody therapy. Monoclonal antibodies have an approach has worked to treat other illnesses. There are monoclonal antibody therapies that treat HIV, asthma, lupus, Ebola and some forms of cancer, as <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/01/health/eli-lilly-antibody-therapy-human-trial-covid-19/index.html" target="_blank">CNN</a> reported.</p>
<p>"Ultimately, what we would hope is that this would be an effective treatment that would provide very strongly neutralizing antibodies to lower the virus and help patients recover," said Mark Mulligan, the director of the vaccine center at New York University Langone Health, who is one of the doctors working in the study that Lilly is funding, as <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/01/eli-lilly-begins-first-human-tests-of-an-antibody-drug-against-covid-19/" target="_blank">STAT News</a> reported.</p><p>"It feels it feels like we're making history," said Skovronsky, according to <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/01/eli-lilly-begins-first-human-tests-of-an-antibody-drug-against-covid-19/" target="_blank">STAT News</a>. Just three months after Covid-19 became a global pandemic, the pharmaceutical industry has been able to confront it, he said. "This has got to be a new phase in the fight."</p>
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People are having a hard time trying to understand what information is reliable and what information they can trust. Aekkarak Thongjiew / EyeEm / Getty Images
By Cathy Cassata
With more than 1.7 million confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the United States and more than 100,000 deaths from the virus, physicians face unprecedented challenges in their efforts to keep Americans safe.
They also encounter what some call an "infodemic," an outbreak of misinformation that's making it more difficult to treat patients.
<p>"The most prevailing theme regardless of misinformation on a website or someone sharing a Facebook post is eroding trust. Medical experts and doctors who are trying to help patients, whether in general or in the office, [are seeing] the doctor-patient relationship being broken down over time and especially during this pandemic," <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/find-a-doctor/profiles/david-r-stukus" target="_blank">Dr. David Stukus</a>, associate professor of pediatrics in the division of allergy and immunology at Nationwide Children's Hospital in Columbus, Ohio, told Healthline.</p><p>Stukus says people are having a hard time trying to understand what information is reliable and what information they can trust.</p><p>"Oftentimes their personal doctor may give them information that contradicts what they heard online or from someone else, and that really puts the patient in a tough position as they try to determine the best path forward for their own health," he said.</p><p>While misinformation online has been around for a while, Stukus says it has increased during the pandemic.</p>
<p>"Previously, there were different focuses of misinformation, such as anti-vaccine groups or conspiracy theorists or unsubstantiated claims about supplements. Now all those different areas are focused on one area, and that's COVID-19," he said.</p><p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/experts/joe-pierre-md" target="_blank">Dr. Joseph M. Pierre</a>, health sciences clinical professor of psychiatry at University of California, Los Angeles, says the damage that misinformation can have depends on how much people's belief in the misinformation leads to behaviors that increase the risk of infection, worsen the course of the illness, or pose other risks in their own right.</p><p>"Most of the evidence falls into the first category: By not observing proper social distancing and not wearing masks, the risk of infection is greater. More cases mean more morbidity and more death and the potential to overwhelm medical resources," Pierre told Healthline.</p><p>Lack of understanding when it comes to proper use of masks and personal protective equipment (PPE) for healthcare workers poses a challenge.</p><p>"If some people are not wearing masks, but others are stockpiling N95 masks and other PPE, that puts healthcare workers at risk," Pierre said.</p>
When Leaders and Doctors Spread Misinformation
<p>When people in charge of towns, cities, states, and countries spread misinformation, the potential for belief in misinformation to result in policies can have harmful effects.</p><p><a href="https://www.northwell.edu/find-care/find-a-doctor?q=Bruce+E.+Hirsch%2C+MD&insurance=&location=&query_type=provider&physician_partners=false&default_view=list&gender=&language=&sort=relevancy" target="_blank">Dr. Bruce E. Hirsch</a>, attending physician and assistant professor in the infectious disease division of Northwell Health in Manhasset, New York, says an example of this is when President Trump informed the public he was taking hydroxychloroquine as a preventive measure.</p><p>"To approach this enormous challenge, we need some intellectual honesty and clarity, and to disregard expertise and to make decisions and model decisions based on hunches is inviting us to handle challenges on the basis of rumor and uninformed opinion. The magnitude of that error is epic," Hirsch told Healthline.</p><p>Stukus agrees, noting that the harm of this proclamation is documented.</p><p>"Early on when the president touted the benefits of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin, people started to hoard this medicine, and state boards had to shut it down because they were getting so many prescriptions for this unproven therapy that it was not available for those who truly needed it, such as those who have lupus and autoimmune conditions," Stukus said.</p><p>He adds that calls to poison control centers increased after the president suggested using disinfectant to prevent contracting the new coronavirus.</p><p>"When people in charge who have large platforms make recommendations regarding treating and/or public health policies, their words absolutely matter because people will follow their advice. It's imperative that they base their recommendations upon evidence and expertise of doctors and other medical professionals," Stukus said.</p><p>Same goes for doctors spreading information that's contrary to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and National Institutes of Health (NIH).</p><p>Stukus says as videos and dialogue from naysayer doctors spread on social media, it can be difficult to navigate.</p><p>"This is the next wave of misinformation. Certain political ideologies are using doctors to promote their agendas, so now you have someone who is qualified, and maybe they are giving information to counteract the CDC for instance. It's hard to reconcile that," he said.</p><p>His best suggestion is to research what studies and data they're sharing. Ensure that the studies are peer reviewed or published, and that the medical experts don't have a financial motive.</p><p>"If the source of information is also selling a product and/or service, they are by definition conflicted, so that should be a giant red flag. There are well-established tricks and marketing ploys that people will use often in the realm of pseudoscience where they will offer these explanations that aren't backed by evidence," Stukus said.</p><p>"As a general rule, if information is an extreme outlier, it's probably not accurate, or if it sounds too good to be true, it probably isn't," he added.</p>
Listen to Science, Even When it Changes
<p>When recommendations change or evidence flip-flops, skepticism may arise. However, Stukus says change is the beauty of science.</p><p>"That shows us that we can evolve, and if the evidence shows that our prior thoughts were incorrect, we need to be able to change our recommendations and advice based upon the best quality of evidence at the time," he said.</p><p>Pierre agrees.</p><p>"Science is an iterative process, whereby we arrive at facts and truth through repeated and controlled observations. That means that it's inherently self-correcting as we revise conclusions based on ongoing research. Scientific facts aren't immutable dogma chiseled on a tablet. They change based on the best available evidence we have at a given point in time," he said.</p><p>Because research of COVID-19 has only been underway for 6 months, information is evolving rapidly, and new information may contradict old.</p><p>"There's still much we don't know about exactly how [COVID-19] spreads, what effects it has on the body, or how to best treat it. That means that the best available evidence is preliminary, but that doesn't mean that we should ignore it or turn to other sources of information or opinion as if they're just as valid," Pierre said.</p><p>He explains that conspiracy theories based on mistrust lead to vulnerability to misinformation.</p><p>If people mistrust science because it sometimes "changes its mind," Pierre said, "that shouldn't be used to embrace other opinions based on no evidence at all, which are typically selected based on confirmation bias: what we want to believe rather than what the objective evidence supports."</p>Where to Find the Best Information
<p>Stukus says to start with the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/index.html" target="_blank">CDC</a> and <a href="https://www.nih.gov/health-information/coronavirus" target="_blank">NIH</a>. Then check with your local health officials, because COVID-19 guidelines may vary depending on where you live.</p><p>If you can't find information you need or have questions specifically related to you, call your primary care doctor.</p><p>"Your personal doctor should always be a resource for individual specific questions because they know best how to apply all the nuances retaining to your health, and how to incorporate all the other general [COVID-19] recommendations," Stukus said.</p><p><a href="https://www.eehealth.org/find-a-doctor/b/boyd-laura-b/" target="_blank">Dr. Laura Boyd</a>, primary care physician at Edward-Elmhurst Health Center in Elmhurst, Illinois, says her clinic receives a lot of calls about COVID-19.</p><p>"Most doctors' offices are receiving calls and answering questions, and doing phone or video visits to help clarify and/or order testing over the phone based on patients' symptoms. It is always best to call your doctor's office first instead of worrying about symptoms and waiting too long to seek treatment," she told Healthline.</p><p>If your primary care doctor has limited testing, she suggests looking on your state's public health website for available testing sites.</p><p>With a lot of unknowns related to this virus and disease, Boyd says many patients are feeling overwhelmed and anxious for a treatment.</p><p>"Unfortunately, there is no specific medication recommended for COVID for outpatient. There are a lot of ongoing studies with various drugs going on within the hospital setting. Patients should always contact their doctors about their specific symptoms as they can treat the symptoms that go along with COVID, but there is no cure," Boyd said.</p><p>While we wait for treatment and a vaccine, Hirsch, who treats patients hospitalized for COVID-19 complications on a daily basis, says everyone can do their part by washing hands, wearing a mask, and staying 6 feet apart.</p><p>"As an infectious disease doctor working in the hospital, I see the damage of the pandemic and the worst cases of what's happening. We are trying to get the best possible outcome and confronting this overwhelming biologic reality of this terrible epidemic the best we can," Hirsch said.</p><p>Everyone at home can help in the fight too, he adds.</p><p>"Follow information that is science- and evidence-based, and avoid that which is not," he said.</p>From Your Site Articles
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A crowd of protestors on May 31, 2020 in Washington, DC. Tasos Katopodis / Getty Images
The nationwide horror at the killing of George Floyd by the Minneapolis police has triggered protests in 75 cities. People are demonstrating against the systemic racism that has made people of color targets of lethal actions by law enforcement. In response, elected officials and public health experts are walking a fine line of affirming the rights of protestors while simultaneously worrying that the protests will lead to a new wave of coronavirus infections.
<p>It is worth noting that unlike the protests against stay-at-home orders and mask wearing, many of the demonstrators against racial injustice were wearing masks and gloves.</p><p>"All things considered, there's little doubt that these protests will translate into increased risk of transmission for COVID-19," said Maimuna Majumder, a computational epidemiologist at Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, to <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/06/protests-pandemic/612460/" target="_blank">The Atlantic</a>. However, she added the protests are important and necessary.</p><p>"Structural racism has been a public-health crisis for much longer than the pandemic has," she said.</p>
<p>The protests over the injustice of police officers disproportionately killing people of color have coincided with how COVID-19 deaths disproportionately hit racial minority communities. That phenomenon exposed huge disparities in resources and access to care in a country without universal healthcare.</p><p>As <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/06/protests-pandemic/612460/" target="_blank">The Atlantic</a> noted, the pandemic and unrest together have trapped the country in a bind. The demonstrations oppose police brutality. But peaceful, masked protesters — and the journalists covering them — have sometimes been met with an overly aggressive police response. Yet, the demonstrations and the aggressive response by police are likely to exacerbate the spread of the coronavirus.</p>
<p>The scenes of protestors holding hands, or shouting in the face of police, or singing in close quarters has raised concern that the protests will act as super spreaders.</p><p>"If you were out protesting last night, you probably need to go get a COVID test this week," said Atlanta Mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms at a news briefing Sunday, as <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/protests-could-accelerate-spread-coronavirus-public-health-experts-say-n1220551" target="_blank">NBC News</a> reported. "[B]ecause there's still a pandemic in America that's killing black and brown people at higher numbers."</p><p><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/06/protests-pandemic/612460/" target="_blank">The Atlantic</a> noted the aspects of the protests and the police response that may contribute to a spread of the coronavirus. "The virus <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/05/how-will-we-ever-be-safe-inside/611953/" target="_blank">seems to spread</a> the most when people yell (such as to chant a slogan), sneeze (to expel pepper spray), or cough (after inhaling tear gas). It is transmitted most efficiently <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-japan-tackled-coronavirus-without-a-lockdown-2020-5" target="_blank">in crowds and large gatherings</a>, and research has found that just a few contagious people <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/why-do-some-covid-19-patients-infect-many-others-whereas-most-don-t-spread-virus-all" target="_blank">can infect</a> hundreds of susceptible people around them. The virus can spread especially easily in small, cramped places, such as police vans and jails."</p>
<p>Public health experts have urged demonstrators to take precautions so they mitigate the spread of the coronavirus.</p><p>"Crowded protests, like any large gathering of people in a close space, can help facilitate the spread of covid-19, which is why it's so important participants wear masks, eye protection and bring hand-gel," Saskia Popescu, an infectious-disease epidemiologist at George Mason University's Schar School of Policy and Government, wrote in an email to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/crowded-protests-spark-concerns-about-fresh-outbreaks-of-the-deadly-coronavirus/2020/05/31/27397194-a364-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html" target="_blank">The Washington Post</a>. "Shouting and screaming, as some studies have shown with singing, can project droplets farther, which makes the use of masks ... and eye protection ... that much more important."</p><p>While masks will reduce the spread of airborne droplets, their effectiveness is limited, unless they are N95 masks, according to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/crowded-protests-spark-concerns-about-fresh-outbreaks-of-the-deadly-coronavirus/2020/05/31/27397194-a364-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html" target="_blank">The Washington Post</a>. However, N95 masks are in short supply and should be reserved for frontline clinicians.</p>
<p>"The question is: how do we do protesting safely?" Dr. Ashish Jha, the director of the global health institute at Harvard's TH Chan School of Public Health, told CNN, as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/31/fears-grow-of-surge-in-us-coronavirus-cases-from-george-floyd-protests" target="_blank">The Guardian</a> reported. "I think masks are a critical part of it."</p><p>Some public health experts take solace that the protests are outdoors where droplets containing the virus are diluted in the air. Also, studies have shown that the virus is seldom transmitted in open-air situations.</p><p>"Yes, the protests are outside, but they are all really close to each other, and in those cases, being outside doesn't protect you nearly as much," said Howard Markel, a medical historian who studies pandemics, as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/health/protests-coronavirus.html" target="_blank">The New York Times</a> reported. "Public gatherings are public gatherings — it doesn't matter what you're protesting or cheering. That's one reason we're not having large baseball games and may not have college football this fall."</p><p>Furthermore, he noted, that many of the protestors are young and he worries that they will be asymptomatic, but bring home the virus to elderly relatives. Also, aggressive police tactics for crowd control, like using tear gas and pepper spray, increase respiratory secretions from the eyes, nose and mouth. Police also corral crowds, penning people together in small spaces.</p>
<p>Dr. Theodore Long, who is leading New York City's contact tracing efforts, echoed the mayor of Atlanta, urging anyone who had been involved in the protests to get tested for the virus and to protect themselves.</p><p>"We strongly encourage anybody who is out in the protests to wear a mask, practice proper hand hygiene and to the extent possible, socially distance, though we know that's not always going to be feasible," Dr. Long said, as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/nyregion/coronavirus-new-york-live-updates.html" target="_blank">The New York Times</a> reported.</p>
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Mourners after a mass burial of coronavirus victims in Brazil, which now has the world's second largest outbreak after the U.S. Andre Coelho / Getty Images
The total number of confirmed coronavirus cases passed six million Sunday, even as many countries begin to emerge from strict lockdowns.
<p>As of Monday morning, the total global tally of cases was at 6,172,448, with 372,136 deaths, according to <a href="https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html" target="_blank">Johns Hopkins University</a>. The U.S. still leads the world for both caseloads and deaths, with nearly 1.8 million cases and 104,383 fatalities. Brazil now has the second-highest number of cases, at 514,849.</p><p>Combatting the outbreak has become a charged political issue in Brazil, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/31/global-report-coronavirus-cases-pass-6-million-as-donald-trump-postpones-g7" target="_blank">The Guardian reported</a>, as governors and mayors impose lockdown measures while rightwing President <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/jair-bolsonaro" target="_self">Jair Bolsonaro</a> rails against the "tyranny of total quarantine."</p><p>The country's health ministry said it had no idea when the outbreak would peak, and experts say its caseload could be much higher than reported because there has not been widespread testing.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, U. S. President <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/donald-trump" target="_self">Donald Trump</a> announced Saturday that the G7 meeting he had wanted to host in Washington, DC in late June would be postponed until September, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/31/donald-trump-postpones-g7-summit-and-signals-wider-attendance-list-in-future" target="_blank">The Guardian reported further</a>. The decision reverses an intention laid out in a May 20 tweet.</p><p>"Now that our Country is 'Transitioning back to Greatness', I am considering rescheduling the G-7, on the same or similar date, in Washington, D.C., at the legendary Camp David. The other members are also beginning their COMEBACK. It would be a great sign to all - normalization!" he wrote.</p>
<iframe width="100%" height="150" scrolling="no" class="rm-shortcode twitter-embed-1263113203749453827" id="twitter-embed-1263113203749453827" lazy-loadable="true" src="/res/community/twitter_embed/?iframe_id=twitter-embed-1263113203749453827&created_ts=1589984629.0&screen_name=realDonaldTrump&text=Now+that+our+Country+is+%E2%80%9CTransitioning+back+to+Greatness%E2%80%9D%2C+I+am+considering+rescheduling+the+G-7%2C+on+the+same+or+si%E2%80%A6+https%3A%2F%2Ft.co%2FIwr9kZFMoL&id=1263113203749453827&name=Donald+J.+Trump" frameborder="0" data-rm-shortcode-id="1a20435921e966226f13b72150612906"></iframe>
<p>His reversal came days after German Chancellor Angela Merkel told him in a phone call that she thought holding the summit was a health risk. Her office said on Saturday she would not attend the meeting unless the coronavirus situation had changed substantially, <a href="https://apnews.com/5ee3a0ae2216bf696561729cd08e8ad9" target="_blank">The Associated Press</a> reported.</p><p>"As of today, given the overall pandemic situation, she cannot commit to participating in person," her office said, according to The Associated Press.</p>
<p>However, in other ways many countries are moving back towards normalcy. Here are some of the restrictions being eased, according to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/world/coronavirus-news.amp.html" target="_blank">The New York Times</a> and <a href="https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/world-covid-19-cases-top-6-million-as-leaders-disagree-on-pandemic-response/" target="_blank">EURACTIV</a>:<span></span></p><ul><li>Greece: To boost tourism, the country is reopening to all international travelers. Two airports will handle international travel from June 15 to June 30, while international flights will resume for all airports July 1, along with international arrivals by sea.</li><li>Norway and Denmark: The two Scandinavian countries will allow travel between each other.</li><li>The Middle East: Jerusalem's Al-Aqsa mosque reopened for prayers Sunday, while Iran announced that collective prayers would begin again in mosques.</li><li>Europe: Parks and the Galeries Lafayette department store reopened in Paris Saturday, as did Italy's Tower of Pisa. In Austria, hotels and movie theaters opened to customers provided they wear masks.</li><li>The U.S.: Washington, DC allowed outdoor dining again while Los Angeles reopened restaurants and hair salons. Hard-hit New York City will start reopening the week of June 8.</li><li>The UK: More stores and English primary schools will reopen Monday, and small groups will be able to gather outdoors. Professional sports will also begin June 1.</li></ul>
<p>However, not all <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/tag/public-health" target="_self">public health</a> experts think it is wise to ease lockdown measures.</p><p>Experts on the UK's Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) urged caution, as <a href="https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/29/covid-19-spreading-too-fast-to-lift-uk-lockdown-sage-adviser?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other&__twitter_impression=true" target="_blank">The Guardian reported</a>. There are still 8,000 new coronavirus cases in England a day, and that figure does not include hospitals and care homes.</p><p>"Covid-19 spreading too fast to lift lockdown in England," SAGE member Jeremy Farrar tweeted.</p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Covid-19 spreading too fast to lift lockdown in England. Agree with John & clear science advice. TTI has to be in place, fully working, capable dealing any surge immediately, locally responsive, rapid results & infection rates have to be lower. And trusted <a href="https://t.co/ZmYKs4Go3W">https://t.co/ZmYKs4Go3W</a></p>— Jeremy Farrar (@JeremyFarrar) <a href="https://twitter.com/JeremyFarrar/status/1266470822564200456?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">May 29, 2020</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
<p>And not every country is joining the race to reopen. In Spain, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez said Sunday he would ask Parliament to extend the state of emergency until June 21, The New York Times reported.</p><p>"We cannot throw away all the work that we have done," he said.</p>
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Frederic Edwin Church's The Icebergs reveal their danger as a crush vessel is in the foreground of an iceberg strewn sea, 1860. Buyenlarge / Getty Images
Scientists and art historians are studying art for signs of climate change and to better understand the ways Western culture's relationship to nature has been altered by it, according to the BBC.
<p>Scientists have used art to help reconstruct historic weather and climatic conditions, such as the behavior of the Lower Grindelwald Glacier in the Swiss Alps prior to the invention of photography. Over the last 150 years, artists' depictions and use of ice has changed wholesale.</p>
<p>In 1861, Frederic Edwin Church's grand work, <em>The Icebergs,</em> showed humans' fragility in the face of the sublime power of Arctic ice floes. "Later pieces of art," on the other hand, "are about the ice melting because of what we've done to it," according Karl Kusserow, curator of American art at the Princeton University Art Museum. "There's a 180-degree switch from a world that we have no control over, to one in which we are actually controlling the fate of the planet, and recognizing that we're not doing a very good job on it."</p>
<p><strong>For a deeper dive:</strong></p><p><a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20200528-the-climate-change-clues-hidden-in-art-history?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=88687841&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-_t3KAl8PxZcWuaJm354sogYACZWWrYhJ-xB0nIbDi1w9baaxmVQhjVMV2iVCHLhZt-WbcScHl5bPaJnzE0BMvZSLjAkANlNKv9a5o6XwWD73aliG4&utm_content=88687841&utm_source=hs_email" target="_blank">BBC</a><br/><a href="http://www.chron.com/technology/businessinsider/article/EPA-blasts-Associated-Press-journalist-over-12170978.php" target="_blank"></a></p><p><em>For more </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/climate-change-news/" target="_blank"><em>climate change</em></a><em> and </em><a href="http://ecowatch.com/business/renewables/" target="_blank"><em>clean energy</em></a><em> news, you can follow Climate Nexus on </em><a href="https://twitter.com/ClimateNexus" target="_blank"><em>Twitter</em></a><em> and </em><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ClimateNexus/" target="_blank"><em>Facebook</em></a><em>, and sign up for daily </em><a href="http://climatenexus.us4.list-manage1.com/subscribe?u=d1f5797e59060083034310930&id=7c84c08aaa" target="_blank"><em>Hot News</em></a><em>.</em></p>From Your Site Articles
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