Best CBD Vape Juice & Oil: Top 3 Brands of 2021

By Annamarie Meli
CBD has taken the world by storm thanks to its keen therapeutic properties and potential medical benefits. CBD has been praised for many things: its therapeutic uses, potential medical benefits, and anti-anxiety and relaxation properties. As CBD becomes more popular and standard, you are perhaps wondering if you can benefit from CBD.
There is a lot of misinformation about CBD out there, from claims that it can cure any disease to claims that it is actually harmful. We care about factual information here so we put together this comprehensive guide on the best CBD vape juice and oils for consumer use. All of our reviews are backed by peer-reviewed science and we take the time to vet each company that we recommend thoroughly.
Today we are going to discuss CBD vape juices and oils. Without a doubt, one of the most popular ways to consume CBD, vaping or smoking has become the top choice for consumers. What makes these products so unique is that they provide a near instant-acting dose. This can be incredibly practical for those who do not want to fuss with drops, creams or edibles. So if you are interested in learning more about the wild and wonderful world of CBD vape juice and oil, then read on.
Top CBD Vape Juice & Oil: Summary
Our peer-reviewed, non-biased system involves concise and formulated testing. To skip ahead of our in-depth discussion here are our top favorite picks:
- CBDfx - Best Variety & Editor's Choice
- Diamond CBD - Best Value
- Empe USA - Great Taste
This transparent approach has provided our readers with a clear resource to make informed and educated buying decisions.
The Formula: How We Put It All Together
We take our CBD research seriously. That is why we thoroughly vet every product and brand that we recommend. Here is a list of factors we consider when choosing and ranking our brand selection.
Hemp source - Hemp source is one of the most important parts of the CBD manufacturing process. If you have poorly grown and poorly cultivated hemp, then you will have a bad product. To that end, we make sure to only pick companies that grow organic hemp according to the most up-to-date botanical and cultivation methods. We also make sure to choose companies that use organically grown, locally-sourced hemp.
Extraction process - Another important factor we consider is extraction process; i.e. how the product is made. There are 3 major types of extraction for CBD products. The first is the simplest and involves crushing the leaves and stems and removing the residual mixture. This process is simple and can be performed in your kitchen but is highly inefficient.
Solvent extraction involves running the hemp plant through a solvent mixture (most of the time it's ethanol) then boiling away the solvent to leave the oil residue. The last common method is called supercritical CO2 extraction. With this process, supercooled liquid CO2 acts as the solvent. The CO2 is then evaporated off leaving behind the pure oil residue. Supercritical CO2 extraction is considered the gold standard when it comes to CBD production. As such, we try to find companies that use supercritical methods for their products.
Manufacturing standards - CBD is neither regulated nor approved by the FDA for medical use. As such, there are no universal federal standards for the manufacture of CBD. That being said, there are several third-party organizations that vet companies based on manufacturing standards and the quality/accuracy of their products. These agencies test company products to make sure that they are made properly and actually contain what they are advertised to contain. As such, we only choose products and companies that have readily accessible third-party lab reports ascertaining the quality of ingredients and production. Any company that does not provide this information for consumers is automatically excluded from consideration.
Type of products - CBD is a diverse molecule and can be made into many products. Some companies may specialize in a specific type of CBD product while others may make many kinds. We always make sure that companies we pick have a suitable level of diversity among their product offerings.
Extra ingredients - CBD products rarely contain just CBD and nothing else. Many contain a full spectrum of cannabinoids and other molecules such as terpenes. We make sure that any companies we choose use all-natural ingredients and do not rely on any synthetic or artificial chemicals. We also look at the type and quality of alternative ingredients
Potency - Potency refers to the overall strength of the mixture. Potency is normally measured in milligrams per milliliter (mg/ml). Most of the time a product will list the potency on the label along with the quantity and volume of the product. Potency is very important because it determines the recommended dose that you should take. More potent CBD can produce stronger effects quicker.
Brand transparency - It is important when dealing with CBD companies that the brand is transparent about their products, methods, and supply chains. So, when looking for companies, we make sure only to pick those that have reliable and transparent business practices, product labelings, and company information/policies.
Website and buying experience - Another important factor we consider is the overall experience shopping and buying on the website. It is very frustrating when you have to deal with an arduous buying or shipping process. So we take website experience and the buying process seriously when considering recommendations.
Customer reviews and testimonials - The last major factor we consider is customer reviews and testimonials. Customer reviews encompass more than just the quality of products. They also talk about how it is to interact with the company and the overall company experience. Customer reviews can also give insights in specific matters that general product descriptions cannot give. They also give a good indication of the public reputation of a company.
CBD Vape Juice & Oil: Product Info
1. CBDfx - Best Variety & Top Choice
First up on our roundup is CBDfx, which has won our admiration for their high-quality products and diverse lineup. This San Francisco-based company was founded in 2014 and has quickly become one of the best and most well-known suppliers of CBD products. Founders Ali Esmalli and Jameson Rogers were inspired to create CBDfx with the goal of providing pure, high-quality products at an affordable price.
The most distinctive feature of CBDfx is their large product lineup. Browsing through their pages, you will find oils, tinctures, vape products, edibles, gummies, creams, salves, and more. Most product types include full spectrum, broad spectrum, and isolate variants. You can pretty much find any kind of CBD product you need from CBDfx. They also have special product lines designed for specific ailments such as their Sleep and Relaxation lines. They also offer CBD products and treats for pets.
All of CBD products are made using locally sourced, organically grown hemp from California and are made using a state-of the art supercritical CO2 extraction method. This extraction method ensures a high-degree of purity and potency. As far as vaping products go, CBDfx offers vape kits complete with cartridges and vaporizer elements, as well as refills. They also offer several different flavors including watermelon, strawberry kiwi, blue raspberry, and natural flavorings. Additionally, all products are 100% vegan and do not contain artificial preservatives or flavorings.
CBDfx has made waves in the CBD community and has generally very positive customer reviews. In particular, customers appreciate the high quality products and excellent customer service. CBDfx offers free shipping on all orders above $35 but also the option to upgrade to priority mail, first class, or FedEx shipping for a small fee. As far as returns go, CBDfx offers a 30 day money-back guarantee for unused and unopened products.
Overall, CBDfx is one of the best CBD companies out there right now. They offer an extremely wide range of products and are vetted by third-party lab tests.
Features
- Large variety of products including tinctures, edibles, capsules, vaping kits and more
- 100% vegan products made with supercritical CO2 extraction methods
- Several flavor profiles including common and unconventional flavorings
- Excellent customer reviews and testimonials
- Free shipping on orders above $35 with options for upgraded shipping
Lab Results - All lab results for each product are included in a link on the product description page. CBDfx charters CCTL for all of their testing requirements. Their vaping product all test positive for quality and lack or impurities.
Shipping & Returns - CBDfx offers free shipping on orders above $35 to all 50 states in the US and also offers a 30-day money back guarantee for unused and unopened products. Customers must pay shipping for returns though.
Pros
- Divers array of products
- High quality production methods
- Generous shipping and return policies
- Locally source organic hemp
- 100% vegan products
Cons
- Slightly more expensive
- Free shipping takes 5-8 days
Click Here To Visit The CBDfx Website.
2. Diamond CBD - Best Value
Next up on our list is Diamond CBD. This Colorado-based CBD company is one of several owned by Potnetwork Holdings which owns several other cannabis companies nationwide.
Diamond CBD, like CBDfx, has a very large product selection, including tinctures, oils, Balms, vape products, edibles, and more. Their product listing for tinctures alone is over 4 pages long. Moreover, every product has an associated lab report so you can check each product's purity, potency, and quality.
Diamond CBD uses multiple extraction methods for their products, including solvent-based extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction, and olive oil extraction. The exact method they use for different products is different. However, the majority of products are made with supercritical CO2 extraction.
In addition to their large product lineup, Diamond CBD also has special lines for specific ailments. They have a Relax line of gummies and tinctures to promote health and combat insomnia, as well as products specifically for pain. They have products ranging in size from 500mg to 1500mg, which, while not as potent as other brands, still has good variety. All of Diamond CBD vape products are full spectrum and contain a wide blend of cannabinoids and other molecules such as terpenes.
As far as shipping goes, Diamond CBD offers free shipping on all purchases over $100. They offer a $10 flat shipping rate otherwise. One of the best aspects of Diamond CBD is how affordable their products are. Their products range between $0.05-$0.12 per mg of CBD which is on the more affordable side of the scale. They also offer a 30-day money back guarantee on all unopened and unused products.
With respect to vaping oils, CBD Diamond offers a wide selection. They offer both vape kits and vape juice refills. Their listing includes several flavorings, including strawberry, watermelon, honey, and natural flavorings.
Features
- Huge range of products available
- Supercritical CO2 extraction method for the majority of its products
- Locally sourced hemp out of Colorado and Kentucky
- Small potency blends available for purchase
- Extremely generous return policies
Lab results - Diamond CBD has their lab reports furnished by Green Science Labs. Their lab reports can be found at the bottom of the main page in one of the links. Each product has an associated lab report and you can search based on product name.
Shipping & Returns - Diamond CBD offers free shipping to all 50 states for purchases over $100. Otherwise, they charge a flat $10 shipping rate. They have a 30-day return policy on all unused and unopened products.
Pros
- Wide selection of products
- Detailed lab reports for all products
- Very affordable prices
- Multiple speciality lines of products
- Large selection of flavors
Cons
- Website design could use some work
- Shipping rate of $10 is fairly high
Click Here To Visit The Diamond CBD Website.
3. Empe USA - Great Taste
Last on our roundup is Empe USA. This US-based CBD company offers 100% organic CBD products and includes a decent range of product types. Empe USA makes all of their products using locally sourced hemp and does not include any synthetic or artificial ingredients.
Empe offers a decent range of products, including oils, tinctures, gummies, creams, salves, and more. Their vape products are all isolate blends and contain no other molecules. Empe USA also features lab reports for all of their products. You can find lab reports at the bottom of the page and search for specific products listings.
Empe USA offers CBD vape juice concentrations of 350mg. Their products are on the more expensive side of the spectrum with $0.12 per mg of CBD. However, the company frequently offers discounts so you can usually get something for a lower price than what is listed.
The vast majority of reviewers claim that Empe USA's products helped them achieve relaxation and reduced pain. There were also several reviews claiming that their skin products helped manage conditions like dry and cracked skin.
AS far as their vaping products go, Empe USA offers a wide selection of vaping juice refills, entire vaping kits, and solo disposable cartridges. Most of their flavors are modeled after the taste of famous cannabis strains such as Blue Dream or Gorilla OG.
Empe offers free shipping on all orders over $100. Otherwise, they charge a flat $5.95 rate, which is fairly low, all things considered. They also offer a standard 30-day return policy for all unused and unopened items. Customers must handle shipping costs for returns though.
Features
- Excellent quality products
- Wide selection of CBD products
- Good natural flavors
- Wide selection of vaping products
- Free shipping for orders over $100
Lab Results - All Empe US lab reports are furnished by Steep Hill labs. You can browse lab reports by clicking on the link at the bottom of the page.
Shipping & Returns - Empe US offers free shipping on all orders over $100 to all 50 states. They charge a flat $5.95 shipping rate for all orders under $100. They also offer a standard 30-day return policy which, while not amazing, is fairly standard for CBD companies.
Pro
- Good selection of products
- Large selection of vaping products
- Free shipping on orders over $100
- Great flavors modeled after traditional cannabis strains
- Lab reports for all products
Cons
- Website is slightly confusing to navigate
- Extraction method is not specified on official website
- Return policy is not amazing
Where Does CBD Come From?
CBD comes from the cannabis plant, however, there is a bit more nuance to it than just that. Cannabis can be divided into two main types of plants called marijuana and hemp. Marijuana typically refers to cannabis plants that contain more than 0.3% THC per mass while hemp refers to cannabis plants that have less than 0.3% THC by mass. Most CBD oils are made from hemp and so contain a very low if not negligible amount of THC.
CBD oil can also be divided into types based on the ingredients. Isolates are the most pure form and only contain CBD suspended in some matrix, normally vegetable glycerin or glycol. Broad spectrum blends include a larger variety of cannabinoids such as CBG, CBC, and CBN. Full spectrum blends contain a diverse cannabinoid profile including THC, as well as other molecules such as terpenes, vitamins, and fatty acids.
What Are CBD Vape Products?
CBD can be vaporized and inhaled. To that end, many companies offer CBD vaping products. These products normally involve a vape with disposable or refillable cartridges. The vape apparatus vaporizes the CBD contained in the cartridge, which is then inhaled. It is the same principle behind e-cigarettes and THC vape products.
CBD vape products can be found in isolate, broad spectrum, or full spectrum varieties. Each kind of variety is suited for a specific purpose. Most CBD vaping products are normally broad or full spectrum and usually contain THC, however some do not. Full spectrum vaping products also contain other molecules such as terpenes.
Vaporization is normally considered a potent way to ingest CBD and so it is not for everyone. Because the vapor is inhaled, the molecule enters the bloodstream much quicker, so vaping produces a fast and relatively intense feeling.
How Does CBD Work?
CBD has become an interesting object of study by scientists because of its potential therapeutic and medicinal properties. CBD has been shown to:
- Reduce anxiety
- Reduce inflammation
- Reduce nociceptive and neuropathic pain
- Manage neuropathy
- Has neuroprotective properties
- Anti-tumor benefits
Out of all these effects, the pain reducing and anti-inflammatory properties of CBD are the most well-established. CBD has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and has also been shown to be as effective as several traditional methods of pain management. There is also some evidence that CBD might have anti-tumor properties, although there is still no consensus on that matter. CBD has been noted as particularly effective in managing cancer and cancer-treatment related symptoms such as pain, loss of appetite, and anxiety.
To be clear, CBD is not medicine and is not generally approved by the FDA for medical use. CBD is not intended to serve as a substitute or replacement for any approved medical treatment and CBD is not known to cure any diseases.
In fact, there are only 2 FDA-approved medicines that contain CBD as their active ingredient, both of which are meant to treat certain forms of epilepsy. Since CBD is not approved for medical use, you should always talk to your doctor first before using a CBD product.
Endocannabinoid System
The exact mechanism of action of CBD is still a matter of scientific investigation, though there is a growing consensus that CBD works on the body's endocannabinoid system. The endocannabinoid is a large network of cannabinoid receptors throughout the body's brain and nervous tissue. Research has shown that the endocannabinoid system is involved in mediating several homeostatic processes in the body.
As such, there is a growing belief in the medical community that several seemingly disparate chronic conditions might be explained by an imbalance in the body's endocannabinoid system. Conditions such as fibromyalgia, IBS, and some auto-immune conditions might be related to the endocannabinoid system. CBD has become a target of interest to medical researchers in virtue of its effects on the system.
The endocannabinoid system contains two types of receptors, dubbed CB1 and CB2. CB1 receptors are located primarily in the brain while CB2 receptors are located primarily in the central and peripheral nervous system. CBD is a partial agonist of both receptors, so while it does interact with the receptors, it does not fully fit into the "lock-and-key" mechanism. The exact nature of CBD's interaction with CB1 and CB2 receptors is still a matter of investigation.
THC also interacts with the endocannabinoid receptors but in a different way. Thus CBD is not associated with the psychoactive effects of THC. You will not get "high" from CBD, although many report a sense of general relaxation and calm after taking CBD.
Dosage and Side Effects
CBD is not regulated or approved by the FDA so there are no accepted standards as to what the acceptable dosage of CBD is. Experiments involving CBD range from very small doses to fairly high doses, though few experiments focus specifically on finding the proper dosage per unit of dobby weight.
However, most experts recommend that you start with a dosage of 1 mg of CBD per 10 lbs. Of body weight. So for example, if you weigh 150 lbs, then a good recommended dose to start with would be 15mg. You should always start with a smaller does and slowly increase the dosage by 1-2mg per week until you achieve the desired effects. It is generally not recommended to exceed more than 100mg of CBD per day, although this depends on your specific situation.
CBD has been shown to be non-toxic, even in extremely high doses. The LD50 of CBD in humans has not been determined but animal studies show that it is likely extremely high and CBD does not produce lasting negative effects even at very high doses. As such, it is virtually impossible that you could overdose on CBD. It is also not associated with a "hangover" or withdrawal effects as it is non-addictive and non-habit forming.
Side Effects
CBD does have a handful of side effects, though most of them are mild and tend to go away once you get used to taking the product. The most common reported side effects of CBD are:
- Dry mouth
- Fatigue/lethargy
- Indigestion
- Changes in appetite
- Upset stomach
The most commonly reported side effect is fatigue and tiredness. The other side effects tend to decrease as you body acclimates to taking the supplement. However, the specific side effects you experience may be heavily dependent on your individual bodily constitution. Some people just react differently to the molecule.
Conclusion
CBD has quickly become one of the most popular therapeutic methods for managing a diverse range of conditions. CBD used to be fairly expensive but increased customer demand and competition between businesses has resulted in a large amount of affordable CBD products for the average consumer. As CBD becomes more popular, we can expect even more company and a wider range of CBD products. This is good news for you as you will have more choices than ever.
Based on our round up, CBDfx is the top CBD provider. They offer a wide range of high-quality products with a solid range of concentrations/potencies. CBDfs also uses high-quality organic CBD for its products and uses a sophisticated supercritical CO2 extraction method. In that sense, CBDfx is one of the best CBD providers on the market right now and any enthusiast can find something to love from them.
President-elect Joe Biden is planning to cancel the controversial Keystone XL pipeline on the first day of his administration, a document reported by CBC on Sunday suggests.
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By Jim Palardy
As 2021 dawns, people, ecosystems, and wildlife worldwide are facing a panoply of environmental issues. In an effort to help experts and policymakers determine where they might focus research, a panel of 25 scientists and practitioners — including me — from around the globe held discussions in the fall to identify emerging issues that deserve increased attention.
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Ask a Scientist: What Should the Biden Administration and Congress Do to Address the Climate Crisis?
By Elliott Negin
What a difference an election makes. Thanks to the Biden-Harris victory in November, the next administration is poised to make a 180-degree turn to again address the climate crisis.
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By Suresh Dhaniyala and Byron Erath
A fast-spreading variant of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 has been found in at least 10 states, and people are wondering: How do I protect myself now?
Airborne Particles Are Still the Biggest Problem
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-matters-that-the-coronavirus-is-changing-and-what-this-means-for-vaccine-effectiveness-152383" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SARS-CoV-2 variants</a> are believed to spread primarily through the air rather than on surfaces.</p><p>When someone with the coronavirus in their respiratory tract coughs, talks, sings or even just breathes, infectious respiratory droplets can be expelled into the air. These droplets are tiny, predominantly in the range of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021850211001200?casa_token=KtyrsEfbeqcAAAAA:vv10sSxm33tzg0EQvNMIFtV7GCu5gE9QAzuyzHKr2_4Cl0OFkUJoGwzn4d0ZnEWS19NsOTuH" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1-100 micrometers</a>. For comparison, a human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter.</p><p>The larger droplets fall to the ground quickly, rarely traveling farther than 6 feet from the source. The bigger problem for disease transmission is the tiniest droplets – those less than 10 micrometers in diameter – which can remain suspended in the air as aerosols for <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/50/5/693/325466" target="_blank">hours at a time</a>.</p><span style="display:block;position:relative;padding-top:56.25%;" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="bb67b83dcafe589f350daf3df60fa29d"><iframe lazy-loadable="true" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UNCNM7AZPFg?rel=0" width="100%" height="auto" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;"></iframe></span>
Daily case reports and 7-day rolling average as of Jan. 16, 2021.Chart: The Conversation, CC-BY-ND Source: COVID Tracking Project Get the data
What Can You Do to Stay Safe?
<p>1) Pay attention to the type of face mask you use, and how it fits.</p><p>Most off-the-shelf face coverings are not 100% effective at preventing droplet emission. With the new variant spreading more easily and likely infectious at lower concentrations, it's important to select coverings with materials that are most effective at stopping droplet spread.</p><p>When available, N95 and surgical masks consistently perform the best. Otherwise, face coverings that use <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352431620301802?casa_token=-Dj6nGBAm24AAAAA:qq9BpbzCKaPDFcV73ohA2fCnhE_Zlkss6Bei3kUwq9QYndhHj0Vafbbd-ef_855lx6knDfUt" target="_blank">multiple layers of material</a> are preferable. Ideally, the material should be a tight weave. High thread count cotton sheets are an example. Proper fit is also crucial, as gaps around the nose and mouth can <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.0c03252" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">decrease the effectiveness by 50%</a>.</p><p>2) Follow social distancing guidelines.</p><p>While the current social distancing guidelines are not perfect – <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-a-smoky-bar-can-teach-us-about-the-6-foot-rule-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-145517" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">6 feet isn't always enough</a> – they do offer a useful starting point. Because aerosol concentrations levels and infectivity are highest in the space immediately surrounding anyone with the virus, increasing physical distancing can help reduce risk. Remember that people are infectious <a href="https://medical.mit.edu/faqs/COVID-19#faq-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">before they start showing symptoms</a>, and they many never show symptoms, so don't count on seeing signs of illness.</p><p>3) Think carefully about the environment when entering an enclosed area, both the ventilation and how people interact.</p><p>Limiting the size of gatherings helps reduce the potential for exposure. Controlling indoor environments in other ways can also be a highly effective strategy for reducing risk. This includes <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-a-smoky-bar-can-teach-us-about-the-6-foot-rule-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-145517" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing ventilation rates</a> to bring in <a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-indoor-air-clean-can-reduce-the-chance-of-spreading-coronavirus-149512" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fresh air and filtering existing air</a> to dilute aerosol concentrations.</p><p>On a personal level, it is helpful to pay attention to the types of interactions that are taking place. For example, many individuals shouting can create a higher risk than one individual speaking. In all cases, it's important to minimize the amount of time spent indoors with others.</p><p>The CDC has warned that B.1.1.7 could <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7003e2.htm?s_cid=mm7003e2_w" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">become the dominant SARS-CoV-2 variant</a> in the U.S. by March. Other fast-spreading variants have also been found in <a href="https://virological.org/t/genomic-characterisation-of-an-emergent-sars-cov-2-lineage-in-manaus-preliminary-findings/586" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Brazil</a> and <a href="https://www.who.int/csr/don/31-december-2020-sars-cov2-variants/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">South Africa</a>. Increased vigilance and complying with health guidelines should continue to be of highest priority.</p>- FDA Approves First In-Home Test for Coronavirus - EcoWatch ›
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By Tara Lohan
A key part of the United States' clean energy transition has started to take shape, but you may need to squint to see it. About 2,000 wind turbines could be built far offshore, in federal waters off the Atlantic Coast, in the next 10 years. And more are expected.
Threats to Birds
<p>One of the gravest threats facing birds is climate change, according to Audubon, which found that rising temperatures threaten <a href="https://www.audubon.org/2019climateissue" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nearly two-thirds of North America's bird species</a>. That's why the impending development of offshore wind is a good thing, says Shilo Felton, a field manager in the organization's Clean Energy Initiative, but it also comes with dangers to birds that need to be better studied and mitigated.</p><p>The most obvious risk comes from birds colliding with spinning turbine blades. But offshore wind developments can also displace birds from foraging or roost sites, as well as migratory pathways.</p><p>Along the Atlantic Coast four imperiled species are of top concern to conservationists: the endangered piping plover, red knot, roseate tern and black-capped petrel, which is being considered for listing under the Endangered Species Act.</p><p>"Those four species are of utmost importance to make sure that we understand the impacts," says Felton. "But beyond that there are many species that are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act that could potentially see more impacts from offshore wind."</p><p>Northern gannets, for example, are at risk not just for collision but <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308703197_Possible_impacts_of_offshore_wind_farms_on_seabirds_a_pilot_study_in_Northern_Gannets_in_the_southern_North_Sea" target="_blank">habitat displacement</a>.</p>A northern gannet flying along Cape May, N.J. Ann Marie Morrison / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
<p>"There's <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320716303196" target="_blank">some evidence</a> that they just won't use areas where turbines are, but that also excludes them from key foraging areas," says Felton. Researchers are still studying what this may mean for the birds. But a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113620305304" target="_blank">study</a> published in December 2020 conducted at Bass Rock, Scotland — home to the world's largest northern gannet colony — found that wind developments could reduce their growth rate, though not enough to cause a population decline.</p><p>Other birds, such as great cormorants and European shags, are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320716303196" target="_blank">attracted to wind developments</a> and use the infrastructure to rest while opening up new foraging areas farther from shore.</p><p>"There's plenty of potential for a bird to use a wind farm and still to avoid the turbines themselves," says Felton.</p><p>Birds like pelicans, however, are less versatile in their movements and are at particular risk of collision because of their flight pattern, she says.</p><p>But how disruptive or dangerous offshore turbines will be along the East Coast isn't yet known.</p><p>Federal and state agencies, along with nongovernmental organizations, says Felton, have done good research to try to better understand those potential impacts. "But these are all theoretical, because we don't have a lot of offshore wind yet in the United States."</p>Threats to Ocean Life
<p>Birds aren't the only wildlife of concern. More development in ocean waters could affect a litany of marine species, some of which are already facing other pressures from overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction and climate change.</p><p>Scientists have found that marine mammals like whales and dolphins could be disturbed by the jarring sounds of construction, especially if pile driving is used to hammer the steel turbine platform into the seafloor.</p><p>The noises, though short-lived, could impede communication between animals, divert them from migration routes or cause them to seek less suitable areas for feeding or breeding. Research from Europe found that harbor porpoises, seals and dolphins may avoid development areas during construction. In most, but <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045101" target="_blank">not all cases</a>, the animals were believed to have returned to the area following construction.</p><p>The biggest concern for conservation groups in the United States is the critically endangered North American right whale. There are fewer than 400 remaining, and the species' habitat overlaps with a number of planned wind development areas along the East Coast.</p><p>"Offshore wind is in no way the cause of the challenges the whales face, but it's going to be another pressure point," says John Rogers, senior energy analyst for the Union of Concerned Scientists.</p><p>Researchers aren't sure how right whales will respond to the noise from pile driving.</p><p>"But we are concerned, based on what we know about how whales react to other noise sources, that they may avoid [wind development] areas," says Kershaw.</p><p>And if that displacement causes them to miss out on important food resources, it could be dangerous for a species already on the brink.</p><p>There are a few other potential threats, too.</p><p>Ships associated with the development — more plentiful during construction — also pose a danger. In the past few years cargo ships, fishing boats and other vessels have caused half of all deaths of North Atlantic right whales.</p>A juvenile right whale breaches against the backdrop of a ship near the St. Johns River entrance. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission / NOAA Research Permit #775-1600-10
<p>And after construction, the noise from the spinning turbines will be present in the water at low decibels. "We don't quite know how the great whales will react to those sounds," says Jeremy Firestone, the director of the Center for Research in Wind at the University of Delaware.</p><p>Other marine mammals may also perceive the noise, but at low decibels it's unlikely to be an impediment, <a href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v309/p279-295/" target="_blank">research has found</a>.</p><p>And it's possible that wind development could help some ocean life. Turbine foundations can attract fish and invertebrates for whom hard substrates create habitat complexity — known as the "reef effect," according to researchers from the University of Rhode Island's <a href="https://dosits.org/animals/effects-of-sound/anthropogenic-sources/wind-turbine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Discovery of Sound in the Sea</a> program. Exclusion of commercial fishing nearby may also help shelter fish and protect marine mammals from entanglements in fishing gear.</p>Ensuring Safe Development
<p>Despite the potential dangers, researchers have gathered a few best practices to help diminish and possibly eliminate some risks.</p><p>When it comes to ship strikes, the easiest thing is to slow boats down, mandating a speed of <a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/vessel-speed-limits-sought-protect-endangered-north-atlantic-right-whales-2020-08-06/" target="_blank">10 knots</a> in wind development areas, and using visual and acoustic monitoring for whales.</p><p>Adjusting operations to reduce boat trips between the shore and the wind development will also help. A new series of service operating vessels can allow maintenance staff to spent multiple days onsite, says Kershaw, cutting down on boat traffic.</p><p>For construction noise concerns, developers can avoid pile driving during times of the year when whales are present. And, depending on the marine environment, developers could use "quiet foundations" that don't require pile driving. These include gravity-based or suction caisson platforms.</p><p>Floating turbines are also used in deep water, where they're effectively anchored in place — although that poses its own potential danger. "We have concerns that marine debris could potentially become entangled around the mooring cables of the floating arrays and pose a secondarily entanglement risk to some species," says Felton, who thinks more research should be conducted before those become operational in U.S. waters — a process that's already underway in Maine, where a <a href="https://composites.umaine.edu/2020/08/05/diamond-offshore-wind-rwe-renewables-join-the-university-of-maine-to-lead-development-of-maine-floating-offshore-wind-demonstration-project/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">demonstration project is being built</a>.</p><p>If loud noises are unavoidable during construction, noise-reducing technologies such as bubble curtains can help dampen the sound. And scheduling adjacent projects to conduct similar work at the same time could limit the duration of disturbances.</p>The foundation installation of the off shore wind farm Sandbank using a bubble curtain. Vattenfall / Ulrich Wirrwa / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
<p>Once turbines become operational, reducing the amount of light on wind platforms or using flashing lights could help deter some seabirds, NRDC <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/harnessing-wind-advance-wind-power-offshore-ib.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">researchers reported</a>. And scientists are exploring using ultrasonic noises and ultraviolet lighting to keep bats away. "Feathering," or shutting down the turbine blades during key migration times, could also help prevent fatalities.</p><p>"We need to make sure that offshore wind is the best steward it can be of the marine ecosystem, because we want and expect it to be a significant part of the clean energy picture in some parts of the country," says Rogers. "We also have to recognize that we're going to learn by doing, and that some of these things we're going to figure out best once we have more turbines in the water."</p><p>That's why environmental groups say it's important to establish baseline information on species before projects begin, and then require developers to conduct monitoring during construction and for years after projects are operational.</p><p>Employing an "adaptive management framework" will ensure that developers can adjust their management practices as they go when new information becomes available, and that those best practices are incorporated into the requirements for future projects.</p>Putting Research Into Action
<p>Advancing these conversations at the federal level during the Trump administration, though, has been slow going.</p><p>"We didn't really have any productive discussions with the administration in the last four years," says Kershaw.</p><p>And when it comes to birds, Felton says the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management's recently completed "draft cumulative environmental impact statement" covering offshore wind developments had a lot of good environmental research, but little focus on birds.</p><p>"Part of that comes from the current administration's interpretation of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act," she says.</p><p>President Trump has been hostile to both wind energy <em>and</em> birds, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/05/climate/trump-migratory-bird-protections.html" target="_blank">and finished gutting the Migratory Bird Treaty Act</a> in his administration's the final days, removing penalties for companies whose operations kill migratory birds.</p><p>There's hope that the Biden administration will take a different approach. But where the federal government has been lacking lately, Kershaw says, they've seen states step up.</p><p>New York, for example, has established an <a href="https://www.nyetwg.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Environmental Technical Working Group</a> composed of stakeholders to advise on environmentally responsible development of offshore wind.</p><p>The group is led by the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, but it isn't limited to the Empire State. It's regional in focus and includes representatives from wind developers with leases between Massachusetts and North Carolina; state agencies from Massachusetts to Virginia; federal agencies; and science-based environmental NGOs.</p><p>New York's latest solicitation for clean energy projects includes up to 2,500 megawatts of offshore wind and <a href="https://www.nyetwg.com/announcements" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">requires developers</a> to contribute at least $10,000 per megawatt for regional monitoring of fisheries and other wildlife.</p><p>Environmental groups have also worked directly with developers, including an agreement with Vineyard Wind — an 800-megawatt project off the Massachusetts coast that could be the first utility-scale wind development in federal waters — to help protect North Atlantic right whales.</p><p>The agreement includes no pile driving from Jan. 1 to April 30, ceasing activities at other times when whales are visually or acoustically identified in the area, speed restrictions on vessels, and the use of noise reduction technology, such as a bubble curtain during pile driving.</p><p>"The developers signed the agreement with us, and then they incorporated, most, if not all of those measures into the federal permitting documents," says Kershaw. "The developers really did a lot of bottom up work to make sure that they were being very protective of right whales."</p><p>Environmental groups are in talks with other developers on agreements too, but Felton wants to see best practices being mandated at the federal level.</p><p>"It's the sort of a role that should be being played by the federal government, and without that it makes the permitting and regulation process less stable and less transparent," she says." And that in turn slows down the build out of projects, which is also bad for birds because it doesn't help us address and mitigate for climate change."</p><p>Kershaw agrees there's a lot more work to be done, especially at the federal level, but thinks we're moving in the right direction.</p><p>"I think the work that's been done so far in the United States has really laid the groundwork for advancing this in the right way and in a way that's protective of species and the environment," she says. "At the same time, it's important that offshore wind does advance quickly. We really need it to help us combat the worst effects of climate change."</p><p><em><a href="https://therevelator.org/author/taralohan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Tara Lohan</a> is deputy editor of The Revelator and has worked for more than a decade as a digital editor and environmental journalist focused on the intersections of energy, water and climate. Her work has been published by The Nation, American Prospect, High Country News, Grist, Pacific Standard and others. She is the editor of two books on the global water crisis.</em></p><p><em style="">Reposted with permission from <a href="https://therevelator.org/offshore-wind-wildlife" target="_blank" style="">The Revelator</a>. </em></p>- U.S. Offshore Wind Power Blown on Course - EcoWatch ›
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